OCR Specification focus:
‘social change and electoral reform 1925 and growing police powers; the rise of nationalism’
The 1920s were a transformative period in Japanese history, marked by rapid political, social, and cultural changes. Electoral reform, social transformation, and nationalist ideology converged to redefine the direction of the nation. This decade encapsulated both the optimism of greater democratic participation and the darker rise of authoritarian nationalism.
Social Change in the 1920s
Urbanisation and Modernisation
Japan in the 1920s experienced rapid urban growth, with cities such as Tokyo and Osaka expanding quickly. Industrialisation attracted workers from rural areas, creating a more urban, wage-based society. Urban living brought:
Consumer culture, including department stores, cinemas, and cafés.
Greater visibility of modern lifestyles, especially for the young generation.
New cultural movements, including Western-inspired fashions, literature, and cinema.
However, these changes were unevenly distributed. While the cities modernised, rural areas faced economic hardship, especially farmers who were vulnerable to price fluctuations in silk and rice.
The Emergence of the “Modern Girl”
A symbol of the decade was the “moga” (modern girl), representing female independence through Western dress, employment, and leisure.
Young moga in Western-style clothing walk through Ginza, Tokyo (1928), exemplifying modern consumer culture and new female roles. Their fashion and leisure signal urbanisation and shifting gender expectations in the Taishō–early Shōwa years. Source
Modern Girl (moga): A Japanese cultural icon of the 1920s symbolising young women adopting Western fashions, independence, and social freedoms, challenging Confucian ideals of female domesticity.
The moga became a subject of admiration and criticism, embodying both Japan’s embrace of modernity and anxieties about social disruption.
Labour and Social Movements
The 1920s saw growing activity from:
Trade unions, strengthened by industrial growth.
Socialist and communist groups, campaigning for worker rights and political reform.
Student movements, increasingly politicised by exposure to Marxist and liberal thought.
The government often responded with repression, using the police to suppress leftist activity.
Electoral Reform of 1925
Universal Male Suffrage Law
In 1925, Japan introduced universal male suffrage, enfranchising all adult males over 25. Previously, voting rights were restricted to men who paid a certain level of tax.
Key outcomes:
The electorate expanded from 3.3 million to over 12 million voters.
Political parties sought to appeal to a broader base, leading to more active electioneering.
The move was celebrated as a democratic step forward, aligning Japan more closely with Western liberal models.
Universal Male Suffrage (1925): Reform granting voting rights to all Japanese men over 25, regardless of tax payments, vastly expanding the electorate.
Although hailed as democratic progress, this reform coincided with increasing restrictions on political freedom.
The Peace Preservation Law (1925)
Introduced in the same year, the Peace Preservation Law aimed to suppress political dissent, particularly socialist and communist organisations. It criminalised any attempt to alter the kokutai (national polity centred on the Emperor).
Kokutai: The Japanese concept of the nation’s fundamental character, centred on imperial sovereignty and the Emperor’s divine authority.
This law significantly expanded police powers, allowing for surveillance, censorship, and imprisonment of political activists. It created a paradox: democratic voting rights on one hand, but tighter authoritarian control on the other.
The Rise of Nationalism
Cultural Nationalism and Identity
While democratic reform advanced, nationalism deepened. Many conservatives feared Western liberalism threatened Japan’s traditions. Nationalist groups promoted:
Loyalty to the Emperor as the spiritual centre of Japan.
The importance of Shinto and traditional values.
Expansionist foreign policy as a solution to economic and social pressures.
Nationalist rhetoric often targeted Western cultural influences, framing them as corrupting forces undermining Japan’s unique identity.
Militarism and Political Influence
The 1920s saw increasing influence of the military in politics, laying the groundwork for later dominance in the 1930s. Military leaders supported nationalist arguments that Japan required strength and unity to resist Western domination.
Intellectual Movements and Right-Wing Groups
Intellectuals such as Ikki Kita promoted radical nationalism, arguing for economic equality alongside authoritarian leadership centred on the Emperor. At the same time, secret societies and right-wing organisations grew, advocating:
Opposition to socialism and communism.
Suppression of democratic politicians seen as corrupt or weak.
Support for expansion abroad, particularly in Asia, as a nationalist duty.
The Role of the State
The state encouraged nationalism through education, where school curricula emphasised:
Emperor worship.
Loyalty to the nation.
Self-sacrifice for the greater good.
These policies helped embed nationalist ideology among younger generations, normalising the belief that individual interests were secondary to national unity.
Interaction Between Reform and Nationalism
The paradox of the 1920s was that greater political participation coincided with growing authoritarianism. While millions gained the right to vote, the simultaneous introduction of the Peace Preservation Law ensured that democracy was tightly controlled.
Key points of interaction:
Electoral reform expanded suffrage but also fuelled anxiety among elites about radical politics, leading to repression.
Social change, particularly urbanisation and Western cultural influences, provoked nationalist backlash, framing liberalism as a threat to Japan’s traditions.
Nationalist ideology increasingly dominated political and cultural discourse, shaping the path towards militarism in the following decade.
This dynamic highlights the unique nature of Japanese politics in the 1920s: a fragile experiment in democracy, overshadowed by the rise of nationalist authoritarianism.
FAQ
The ruling elites hoped to broaden political legitimacy at a time of rapid social change and rising worker agitation. By expanding the electorate, they sought to co-opt popular support and undercut socialist and communist movements.
It was also a move to align Japan with Western democratic powers, strengthening international prestige. However, elites balanced this liberal step with repressive measures, like the Peace Preservation Law, to ensure they retained control.
Rural voters often supported conservative parties that promised stability and agricultural protection.
Many landlords influenced tenants’ votes through economic pressure, limiting the real independence of peasant political choices. In this way, rural suffrage expanded participation but did not radically shift political outcomes.
Authorities focused on:
Socialist and communist organisations.
Student activist circles linked to Marxist ideas.
Labour unions pushing for strikes or wage reform.
The law enabled police to dissolve groups, censor materials, and detain leaders, even if no violent acts occurred. The broad definition of “altering the kokutai” meant almost any left-leaning activity could be suppressed.
Media coverage was mixed. Some urban magazines celebrated the moga as symbols of modern sophistication and consumer culture.
However, conservative newspapers condemned them as decadent, Westernised, and undermining traditional morality. This dual portrayal reflected broader cultural tensions between modernisation and nationalism.
The sudden expansion of the electorate forced parties to adapt their strategies.
They developed mass campaigning methods, including rallies and posters.
Policies were broadened to appeal to urban workers and rural farmers.
Patronage networks expanded, but corruption and vote-buying also became more widespread.
While parties gained visibility, they remained vulnerable to criticism from right-wing groups who viewed them as weak and self-serving.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In what year was universal male suffrage introduced in Japan?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the correct year as 1925.
1 mark for linking the reform specifically to universal male suffrage (not just any reform).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Peace Preservation Law of 1925 reflected both continuity and change in Japanese politics during the 1920s.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for identifying continuity:
Ongoing state suspicion of socialist/communist movements.
Continued emphasis on protecting the kokutai (imperial sovereignty).
Up to 2 marks for identifying change:
Law represented a significant expansion of police powers (surveillance, censorship, imprisonment).
Passed at the same time as universal male suffrage, creating a paradox of reform and repression.
Up to 2 marks for explanation/development:
Linking continuity and change to broader context (e.g., fear of democracy destabilising Japan, growth of left-wing groups, government’s attempt to control modernisation).
Clear explanation of how the law reinforced authoritarian tendencies despite outward democratic reforms.
