OCR Specification focus:
‘resentment about western influences, Ikki Kita, the growth of emperor worship after the accession of Hirohito in 1926; the impact of the Great Depression on Japan.’
Japan in the interwar years faced profound challenges as it navigated identity, modernisation, and economic turmoil. Social anxieties merged with political radicalism, shaping nationalism and militarism.
Resentment about Western Influences
Background to Westernisation
Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan had embraced Western models of industry, education, and government to strengthen the state. By the 1920s, however, a backlash developed. The Taishō democracy of the early twentieth century introduced parliamentary reforms and appeared to align Japan more closely with Western liberalism. Yet sections of society resented this perceived imitation of the West, arguing it eroded Japanese cultural identity and social traditions.
Sources of Resentment
Resentment of Western influences took several forms:
Cultural alienation: Rapid modernisation and urban growth brought Western consumer culture and fashions, creating unease among conservatives who valued Confucian and Shinto traditions.
Political frustration: Western democracies promoted ideals of liberalism, but in Japan these were associated with corruption, factionalism, and weak leadership.
Foreign policy tensions: International agreements, such as the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–1922, imposed limits on Japanese naval power, fuelling feelings of humiliation compared to Britain and the USA.
Racial discrimination: Japanese leaders resented Western refusal to recognise racial equality, particularly the rejection of Japan’s racial equality clause at the Versailles Peace Conference.
The resentment formed part of a wider sense that Westernisation undermined Japan’s sovereignty and national pride.
Ikki Kita and Radical Thought
Ideological Contribution
Ikki Kita (1883–1937) emerged as one of the most influential radical thinkers. He argued for a restructuring of Japanese society through military leadership and expansion.
Ikki Kita: A Japanese nationalist intellectual who promoted socialism blended with militarism, advocating for direct action by the army to establish an authoritarian state.
Kita’s Key Ideas
Advocated the abolition of the Diet (parliament) and replacement with direct imperial rule.
Called for land reform to redistribute wealth from landlords to peasants.
Promoted pan-Asianism, the belief that Japan should lead Asia in resisting Western domination.
Supported military expansion into Manchuria and China to provide resources and living space.
Kita’s ideas influenced the younger officer movement, which saw the army as the engine of national renewal. Although he was executed in 1937 for his role in plotting against the government, his ideology shaped nationalist and militarist thought.
Emperor Worship and the Accession of Hirohito
The Symbolic Role of the Emperor
In 1926, Hirohito ascended the throne as the Shōwa Emperor. His reign coincided with Japan’s growing nationalism. The emperor was increasingly portrayed as a divine and unifying figure.
Emperor Worship: The belief in the emperor’s divine status, rooted in Shinto tradition, portraying him as the living embodiment of the nation and guardian of its destiny.
Growth of Emperor-Centred Nationalism
State Shinto rituals reinforced Hirohito’s sacred role.
School textbooks emphasised loyalty and obedience to the emperor above all else.
The emperor became the focus of national unity, particularly as political parties lost legitimacy in the 1920s and 1930s.
Military groups invoked Hirohito’s authority to legitimise their actions, even when the emperor himself was cautious.
This intensified sense of devotion tied the people’s loyalty not to parliamentary democracy, but to the imperial institution, aligning with militarist ideology.
Enthronement ceremony of Emperor Hirohito held at the Kyoto Imperial Palace in 1928. The rite embodied state ideology and provided powerful imagery for expanding emperor-centred nationalism. The photograph illustrates how ritual spectacle reinforced loyalty to the throne. Source
The Impact of the Great Depression
Economic Crisis in Japan
The Great Depression of 1929 had devastating consequences for Japan’s fragile economy.
Japan depended heavily on exports of silk, which collapsed in value by around 50%, impoverishing rural families.
Unemployment rose sharply in cities as industries cut back.
Rural hardship intensified, with reports of families selling daughters into prostitution to survive.
Social and Political Consequences
The Depression fuelled disillusionment with party politics and liberal economic policy. Many came to see Western capitalism as unstable and unsuitable for Japan.
Key outcomes included:
Rural radicalisation: Farmers and rural youth became a fertile base for militarist recruitment.
Support for protectionism: Calls for economic self-sufficiency grew stronger, pushing Japan toward imperial expansion in Manchuria in 1931.
Delegitimisation of democracy: Politicians seemed powerless, creating space for the army to claim leadership of national recovery.
Link to Militarism
The Great Depression not only worsened social divisions but also provided justification for aggressive expansion abroad. Many believed Japan’s survival depended on securing markets and raw materials in Asia rather than relying on Western trade systems.
Interconnections between Resentment and Crisis
The combined effect of resentment toward Western influences, the radical ideas of thinkers like Ikki Kita, the sacralisation of the emperor Hirohito, and the economic devastation of the Great Depression created fertile ground for the rise of nationalism and militarism in Japan during the 1930s.
FAQ
Japan saw itself as a rising naval power, yet the 5:5:3 ratio placed it behind the USA and Britain. This reinforced the perception of being treated as a junior partner.
Nationalists argued the restrictions not only undermined Japan’s security but also symbolised Western refusal to recognise it as an equal power, fuelling mistrust of Western diplomacy.
The collapse of silk exports devastated rural households, who relied heavily on this crop for income.
Families were often forced into extreme measures:
Withdrawing children from school to work
Sending family members into urban employment
In severe cases, selling daughters into urban prostitution or servitude
These hardships deepened rural resentment toward the government and strengthened support for radical, militarist solutions.
School curricula were revised to emphasise absolute loyalty to the emperor. Textbooks included imperial rescripts and patriotic stories linking Hirohito to divine ancestry.
Daily rituals, such as bowing towards the Imperial Palace, reinforced a sense of reverence from a young age. The system ensured that devotion to Hirohito was normalised and internalised across generations.
Kita’s radicalism inspired the younger officer movement, particularly those disillusioned by parliamentary politics.
His vision of land reform appealed to junior officers from rural backgrounds.
His call for direct imperial rule justified coups against civilian governments.
Even after his execution, his writings circulated within military circles, shaping ideological justification for expansion and authoritarianism.
Urban centres adopted Western fashions, music, and leisure activities, often labelled “modern girl” (moga) or “modern boy” (mobo) lifestyles.
Conservatives saw these trends as undermining Confucian values of family discipline and respect for tradition. For nationalists, Western consumer culture symbolised moral decay and distraction from duty to the emperor and state.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name one economic consequence of the Great Depression for Japan and explain briefly how it affected society.
Mark Scheme for Question 1
1 mark for correctly identifying an economic consequence (e.g. collapse in silk prices, rise in unemployment, rural poverty).
1 additional mark for explaining briefly how this consequence affected society (e.g. collapse in silk prices impoverished farmers; unemployment led to social unrest; rural poverty forced families into desperate measures such as selling daughters).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why resentment towards Western influences grew in Japan during the 1920s and 1930s.
Mark Scheme for Question 2
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained, maximum 6 marks in total.
Award 1 mark for identifying a relevant reason (e.g. naval restrictions at the Washington Conference; rejection of racial equality at Versailles; Western cultural influence threatening traditions).
Award 1–2 further marks for each reason that is clearly explained with contextual detail (e.g. Washington Conference imposed the 5:5:3 ratio on Japanese naval strength, creating humiliation and resentment; Versailles refusal to accept Japan’s racial equality clause highlighted Western discrimination, undermining Japan’s status as a world power).
