OCR Specification focus:
‘Warfare’s role in uniting Germany contrasted with divisive legacies and regionalism.’
The role of warfare in German unification was decisive, yet its achievements remained contested. Wars fostered unity, but regionalism and divisive legacies persisted.
The Role of War in German Unification
The Wars of Unification
German unification was decisively shaped by three key wars between 1864 and 1871, led by Prussia under Otto von Bismarck and its military leadership:
The Danish War (1864):
Prussia allied with Austria against Denmark to seize the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. This demonstrated Prussia’s military strength and laid the foundation for conflict with Austria over control of German affairs.The Austro-Prussian War (1866):
Also known as the Seven Weeks’ War, it decisively removed Austria from German politics. The swift victory at the Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa) established Prussia as the dominant power within the German Confederation and led to the creation of the North German Confederation (1867) under Prussian leadership.
This educational map of Königgrätz/Sadowa (3 July 1866) shows Prussian and Austro-Saxon positions and the decisive Prussian advance. It illustrates how operational decisions produced strategic outcomes with lasting constitutional consequences. Some extra geographic features not essential to the syllabus are included and can be treated as contextual background. Source
The Franco-Prussian War (1870–71):
Prussia’s victory over France, culminating in the Siege of Paris, provided the external threat necessary to unite the southern German states with the North German Confederation. The proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles in January 1871 symbolised unity under Prussia.
Anton von Werner’s “Proclamation of the German Emperor in 1871” shows Wilhelm I in the Hall of Mirrors, surrounded by princes and generals. It highlights the wartime pathway to unity and reflects both the historical moment and contemporary political messaging. Source
North German Confederation: The federal state established in 1867 under Prussian dominance, excluding Austria, which laid the institutional foundations for later unification.
These wars demonstrated how military victories fostered nationalism and strengthened the cause of unity.
Bismarck’s Strategy and Statesmanship
War was not accidental; it was carefully engineered by Bismarck, Prussia’s chancellor, who used diplomacy and provocation to ensure that each conflict served Prussia’s interests:
In 1864, he exploited nationalist sympathy for Schleswig and Holstein.
In 1866, he provoked Austria while ensuring neutrality from France and Russia.
In 1870, he manipulated the Ems Telegram to provoke France into declaring war, making Prussia appear the defender of Germany.
Bismarck’s orchestration ensured wars were framed as defensive, rallying nationalist support and fostering solidarity among previously divided states.
The Unifying Effects of Warfare
Mobilisation of National Sentiment
War generated popular nationalism, as victories were celebrated as German triumphs rather than simply Prussian ones. Key effects included:
Shared military success created pride and a sense of common identity.
The southern states (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt) joined Prussia in 1870 out of fear of French aggression, demonstrating how external threats forged unity.
The symbolic crowning of Wilhelm I as German Emperor at Versailles projected the idea of a unified German nation.
Institutional Integration
War not only encouraged national feeling but also prompted political and structural unification:
The North German Confederation provided military and political institutions that could be extended to include the southern states after 1871.
This SVG map shows the North German Confederation and its expansion from 1866 to 1871, illustrating how Prussia’s military victory reorganised German politics. It locates the northern member states and situates the southern kingdoms that later joined in 1870–71. Some treaty or administrative notes go beyond the syllabus and can be ignored. Source
Victory in 1871 allowed for the negotiation of the German constitution, binding states within the new Second Reich under Prussian dominance.
Second Reich: The German Empire proclaimed in 1871 at Versailles, comprising 25 states under the leadership of Prussia and Kaiser Wilhelm I.
Military triumphs legitimised this settlement, ensuring that war was both a tool of unification and a foundation for new political structures.
Divisive Legacies of Warfare
Regionalism and Particularism
Despite unification, divisions persisted:
The southern states retained distinct traditions, especially Bavaria with its strong Catholic identity.
Regional armies, monarchies, and legal systems remained semi-autonomous, highlighting incomplete integration.
Tensions continued between Prussia and other German states, especially concerning Prussian dominance.
Austria’s Exclusion
The Austro-Prussian War institutionalised the Kleindeutsch solution (unification without Austria). This created lasting divisions within German-speaking Europe:
Many Austrians and southern Catholics remained alienated from the new Empire.
German nationalism itself remained contested between Kleindeutsch (small Germany under Prussia) and Grossdeutsch (including Austria) visions.
Militarism and Authoritarianism
The wars encouraged a militaristic culture that shaped politics:
The army held a privileged role within the new Empire, reinforcing authoritarian tendencies.
The unification process, achieved through “blood and iron,” entrenched the idea that war and force, rather than liberalism or democracy, were the engines of national unity.
Liberal hopes from the Frankfurt Parliament (1848/49) for a constitutional and democratic unification were replaced by an authoritarian empire led by Prussia.
War, Unity, and Division
The Balance of Outcomes
War was both a unifying and divisive force:
It decisively united Germany under Prussia by excluding Austria and defeating France.
It created emotional and symbolic bonds through military victory.
Yet it entrenched regionalism, religious divisions, and authoritarian structures, ensuring that unity was incomplete and often contested.
Legacy for German Nationalism
The unification wars left a dual legacy:
Positive: They provided a shared identity, political unity, and international recognition of Germany as a major European power.
Negative: They fostered exclusion of Austria, reinforced authoritarianism, and encouraged reliance on military solutions, shaping the development of German nationalism up to 1914.
FAQ
The swift Prussian-led victory over France in 1870–71 transformed how Europe viewed the German states. Previously seen as fragmented and internally divided, the new German Empire emerged as a unified, industrial and military power capable of defeating a major European state.
The annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and the symbolic proclamation of the German Empire in Versailles signalled a shift in the European balance of power. France’s defeat and humiliation also fostered long-term Franco-German rivalry, influencing continental politics into the 20th century.
Prussian success was not just strategic but also technological. Key innovations included:
Needle gun: A breech-loading rifle that allowed faster firing, giving Prussian infantry a tactical edge over Austrian forces in 1866.
Railways: Enabled rapid mobilisation and concentration of troops, often outpacing opponents.
Telegraph: Improved communication between command centres and armies in the field.
These advantages made Prussian armies more efficient and adaptable, directly contributing to victories in 1866 and 1870–71.
Southern states such as Bavaria and Württemberg valued their independence and had cultural, religious, and political reasons to distrust Prussian dominance.
They were predominantly Catholic, contrasting with Protestant Prussia.
Many had close diplomatic ties with Austria and France, seeing Prussia as militaristic and authoritarian.
Sovereigns feared losing their monarchic power within a centralised German state.
It was the external threat of French aggression in 1870 that persuaded them to join the unification process, prioritising security over autonomy.
Bismarck’s diplomatic skill was crucial in isolating Prussia’s enemies.
Before 1866, he secured French neutrality and ensured Russia remained uninvolved, leaving Austria isolated.
Before 1870, he obtained Italian support against Austria and ensured that Britain and Russia would not support France.
By manipulating the Ems Telegram, he provoked France into declaring war, making Prussia appear the defensive party and discouraging other powers from intervening.
This diplomatic groundwork allowed Prussia to fight each war on favourable terms.
The proclamation on 18 January 1871 was highly symbolic. Holding the ceremony in the Hall of Mirrors, a traditional seat of French royal power, underscored Germany’s new status and France’s humiliation.
It also demonstrated the military origins of unification, as the empire was born amid victory rather than negotiation. The presence of southern German rulers signalled their acceptance of the new imperial order, though their autonomy persisted.
This moment marked the birth of the Second Reich and confirmed Prussia’s dominance over the new German nation.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two wars that were crucial in the unification of Germany between 1864 and 1871.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correct war identified.
The Danish War (1864) – 1 mark
The Austro-Prussian War (1866) – 1 mark
The Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) – 1 mark
(Maximum 2 marks)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how warfare contributed to German unification by 1871.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic description with limited detail or general reference to wars without explanation of their role.
Example: “Prussia fought wars and united Germany.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation of how at least one war contributed to unification, but coverage may be uneven or lack detail.
Example: “The Austro-Prussian War removed Austria from German affairs and allowed Prussia to form the North German Confederation.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear, detailed explanation of how multiple wars contributed to unification, including specific outcomes and their impact on German unity.
Points could include:
The Danish War (1864) increased Prussian prestige and set the stage for conflict with Austria.
The Austro-Prussian War (1866) excluded Austria and created the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership.
The Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) united northern and southern states against a common enemy, leading to the proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles in 1871.
