OCR Specification focus:
‘External pressures and the war with France unified many, yet differences persisted, 1867–1871.’
The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) was a pivotal conflict that catalysed German unification, forging national unity through shared struggle, though enduring divisions and regional differences remained.
The Franco-Prussian War and the Path to Unity (1867–1871)
Context: Germany Before 1870
By the late 1860s, German nationalism had advanced significantly. The North German Confederation (founded in 1867 under Prussian leadership) united 22 northern states, yet southern German states like Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt remained outside. Religious, cultural, and political differences persisted, and Austria’s exclusion from German affairs after the Austro-Prussian War (1866) left a fragmented landscape. Unification required a powerful catalyst capable of transcending these divisions — and that catalyst was the war with France.
Bismarck’s Diplomacy and the Road to War
The Ems Dispatch and French Provocation
The war’s outbreak was not accidental but the result of deliberate manoeuvring by Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor, who sought a conflict that would unify Germany under Prussian leadership. Tensions rose in 1869 when a Hohenzollern prince was proposed as a candidate for the vacant Spanish throne, alarming France, which feared encirclement by Prussian influence.
French ambassador Benedetti confronted King Wilhelm I at Ems, demanding assurances that no Hohenzollern would ever accept the Spanish crown. Wilhelm’s polite refusal was edited by Bismarck into the provocative Ems Dispatch, deliberately inflaming French public opinion. France declared war on Prussia on 19 July 1870, presenting the conflict as a defensive necessity — but playing into Bismarck’s hands.
Military Campaigns and National Mobilisation
Rapid Prussian Victory
Prussia and its allies were prepared for war. The Prussian army’s general staff system, superior railway logistics, and the effective use of needle guns and Krupp artillery ensured rapid mobilisation and coordination. Southern German states, bound by defensive treaties, now joined the fight — a critical moment of military and political unity.
Key battles such as:
Battle of Wissembourg (4 August 1870) – initial German victory in Alsace.
Battle of Sedan (1 September 1870) – decisive; Emperor Napoleon III captured, ending the Second Empire.
A contemporary plan of the Battle of Sedan (1870) showing dispositions, terrain and encirclement that led to the capture of Napoleon III. It visualises how German coordination and geography combined to deliver a decisive victory. Relief shading and contouring add topographical context beyond the syllabus, but remain helpful rather than distracting. Source
Siege of Paris (September 1870 – January 1871) – culminated in French surrender.
These victories demonstrated the strength of a united German military effort and boosted nationalist sentiment across all German states.
The Role of Nationalism in Wartime Unity
A Shared Cause Against a Common Enemy
The war generated a powerful surge of patriotic feeling. Southern states, previously wary of Prussian dominance, rallied around the cause of defending the German lands against France, a long-standing rival. Newspapers, patriotic songs, and speeches invoked a pan-German identity, portraying the war as a struggle for national honour and destiny.
Pan-Germanism: A nationalist ideology advocating for the political and cultural unification of all German-speaking peoples into a single nation-state.
The emotional impact of French aggression and the shared sacrifices of soldiers from all German states created a new sense of collective identity. While regional loyalties did not disappear, they were increasingly subsumed under the banner of German nationalism.
Political Unification: The Founding of the German Empire
Versailles, 18 January 1871
The military triumphs paved the way for political union. As victory neared, Bismarck negotiated with southern leaders, offering constitutional concessions to secure their entry into a united empire. On 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor (Kaiser) — a symbolic act underscoring France’s humiliation and German ascendancy.
Anton von Werner’s depiction of the Kaiserproklamation in the Hall of Mirrors, with Wilhelm I, Bismarck, and senior commanders present. The image conveys the symbolic politics of declaring German unity on French soil. As a historical painting, some uniform colours are artistically adjusted, but the scene accurately represents the constitutional milestone described in the notes. Source
The new German Empire included:
Prussia as the dominant state, with the Kaiser and Chancellor wielding significant power.
Formerly independent southern states granted autonomy within the imperial framework.
A federal constitution, building on the North German Confederation, balancing local traditions with central authority.
External Pressures and Their Unifying Impact
France as the “Other”
The war intensified German nationalism by defining France as the external antagonist, reinforcing unity through opposition. Centuries of rivalry — from the Napoleonic Wars to territorial disputes over Alsace-Lorraine — were woven into a national narrative of resistance and triumph. The annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in the 1871 peace settlement further symbolised this victory, though it also sowed resentment that would haunt Franco-German relations.
A colour-coded historical map of Eastern France (1870–1871) highlighting Alsace-Lorraine ceded to the new German Empire by the Treaty of Frankfurt. Railways and major rivers are shown, clarifying why control of this corridor mattered strategically. The map’s inset of Metz offers additional detail not required by the syllabus, but it helps situate the campaign area. Source
Bismarck also used the war to secure alliances and neutralise potential opposition. Russia’s support, Britain’s neutrality, and Austria-Hungary’s restraint allowed Prussia to concentrate on defeating France without broader European intervention.
Persistent Divisions After Unification
Limits of National Cohesion
Despite the unifying power of the Franco-Prussian War, divisions persisted within the new empire:
Regional differences: Southern states retained distinct legal systems, monarchies, and identities.
Religious divisions: Protestant north and Catholic south remained culturally distinct, contributing to later conflicts like the Kulturkampf.
Political fragmentation: The imperial constitution favoured Prussian dominance, leaving liberal nationalists dissatisfied and socialists increasingly oppositional.
National minorities: Poles, Danes, and French-speaking populations within the empire often resisted Germanisation policies.
Kulturkampf: A conflict (1871–1878) between the German state under Bismarck and the Roman Catholic Church over influence in education, marriage, and public life.
The exclusion of Austria also continued to shape debates over German identity, with some advocating for a broader Grossdeutsch model of unity including Austrian Germans.
Legacy of the Franco-Prussian War for German Nationalism
The war with France marked the culmination of decades of nationalist aspiration and demonstrated how external conflict could accelerate political transformation. It forged bonds of shared sacrifice and pride, legitimised Prussian leadership, and created a powerful new empire at the heart of Europe. Yet the very structure of that empire, with its federal complexities and Prussian dominance, ensured that national unity remained incomplete and contested.
The war thus both unified and divided: it gave Germans a state, a Kaiser, and a sense of common purpose, but it also left unresolved the deeper social, cultural, and political fractures that would continue to shape German nationalism well into the twentieth century.
FAQ
The Franco-Prussian War marked the end of French dominance on the continent and established the newly unified German Empire as a major European power.
France’s defeat and the fall of Napoleon III weakened the Second Empire, leading to the formation of the Third Republic and a period of political instability.
Germany’s victory shifted the diplomatic balance, creating a powerful new state in central Europe with strong industry and a formidable military. This prompted other powers, notably Britain and Russia, to reconsider their foreign policies and alliances, laying the groundwork for future tensions.
Initially independent, the southern states — Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt — joined the conflict due to existing defensive treaties with the North German Confederation.
Their involvement was significant because:
It demonstrated their willingness to unite militarily against a common enemy.
Their troops contributed substantially to victories such as Sedan and the Siege of Paris.
Their cooperation built trust and paved the way for their inclusion in the new empire.
This military collaboration was crucial in transforming loose nationalist sentiment into formal political unity.
Bismarck deliberately chose the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles — a site symbolising French royal power — to proclaim Wilhelm I as Kaiser on 18 January 1871.
The location was deeply symbolic:
It humiliated France by celebrating German triumph on its soil.
It demonstrated Germany’s emergence as a dominant continental power.
It reinforced national pride and the idea of German unity forged through war.
This theatrical moment broadcast the new empire’s strength across Europe and anchored its legitimacy in a shared narrative of victory.
The annexation deeply embittered France, which considered Alsace-Lorraine part of its national identity. Many inhabitants spoke German dialects but identified culturally as French.
Consequences included:
Persistent French resentment and a desire for revanche (revenge), influencing foreign policy for decades.
Heightened militarism and nationalism in both nations.
Diplomatic isolation of France, as Bismarck sought to prevent alliances that might threaten Germany.
The unresolved dispute over the region remained a central tension and was one of the underlying causes of the First World War.
Newspapers, pamphlets, and patriotic songs played a powerful role in uniting the German population. War reporting glorified German victories and demonised France, strengthening public support for unification.
Illustrated war reports and battlefield dispatches fostered a sense of shared national experience.
The press framed the conflict as a defence of the German homeland, deepening popular nationalism.
Public celebrations of victories and nationalist rhetoric helped integrate southern states into a broader German identity.
This growing national consciousness extended beyond elites, mobilising mass support for the creation of the empire.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was one significant consequence of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) for German unification?
Mark Scheme (2 marks):
1 mark for identifying a relevant consequence.
1 additional mark for briefly explaining how it affected unification.
Examples of acceptable answers:
The war led to the proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor in January 1871 (1) which completed the political unification of Germany under Prussian leadership (1).
The shared conflict against France united northern and southern German states (1) by fostering a common sense of national identity and purpose (1).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how external pressures contributed to German unification during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871).
Mark Scheme (6 marks):
Award up to 6 marks for the following elements:
1–2 marks: Identifying key external pressures such as French hostility, the Ems Dispatch crisis, or fears of encirclement.
1–2 marks: Explaining how the war with France rallied German states together against a common enemy, fostering unity.
1–2 marks: Explaining how the defeat of France and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine symbolised German strength and nationalism, aiding political unification.
1 mark: Mentioning the significance of declaring the German Empire at Versailles as a demonstration of unified German power on foreign soil.
Example of a 6-mark answer:
External pressures, particularly French fears of Prussian influence following the Hohenzollern candidacy for the Spanish throne, led to the Franco-Prussian War. The conflict united northern and southern German states in a shared struggle against France, strengthening national identity. Victory over France, including the capture of Napoleon III and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, further consolidated this unity. Finally, the proclamation of Wilhelm I as Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles symbolised the new German Empire’s strength and marked the culmination of unification.
