OCR Specification focus:
‘War outcomes and constitutional developments restructured power, 1867–1871.’
The period between 1867 and 1871 witnessed decisive military victories and constitutional transformations that shaped the new German Empire’s structure, distribution of power, and national identity.
The Aftermath of War and the Road to Unification
The wars of German unification—the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)—were pivotal in forging a unified German state. These conflicts not only altered the political map of Central Europe but also transformed internal power dynamics, laying the groundwork for a new imperial constitution and redefining the concept of German nationalism. Victory in war strengthened Prussia’s dominance, weakened Austria’s influence, and provided the political momentum and patriotic fervour necessary to unite disparate German states under a single national framework.
Prussia’s Ascendancy and the Shift in Power
The outcomes of these wars decisively reshaped political power within the German lands:
Austria’s exclusion from German affairs after 1866 ended centuries of Habsburg dominance and cleared the path for a Kleindeutsch solution—unification under Prussian leadership without Austria.
Prussia emerged as the undisputed hegemon among the German states, expanding its territory to include Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt.
The establishment of the North German Confederation (1867) institutionalised this new balance, with Prussia as the leading state and its king as the federation’s president.
North German Confederation: A federal union of 22 northern German states formed under Prussian leadership in 1867, creating a framework for eventual German unification.
The North German Confederation became a model for the later German Empire. Its political institutions—such as the Reichstag and Bundesrat—would be retained and expanded after 1871.
The Franco-Prussian War and National Mobilisation
The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) was crucial in consolidating German unity. French opposition to Prussian ascendancy and the manipulation of diplomatic tensions (notably the Ems Dispatch) provoked war, rallying German states behind Prussia.
Key outcomes included:
A surge of nationalist sentiment across German lands, particularly in the southern states (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt), which joined the conflict.
Military victory against France provided a powerful unifying experience, with shared sacrifice and triumph reinforcing a collective German identity.
The proclamation of the German Empire on 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles symbolised both victory and unity.
The war’s success legitimised the new political order and underscored the military strength and diplomatic skill of Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian chancellor, whose leadership was instrumental in harnessing external conflict for domestic political consolidation.
The 1871 Constitution: Structure and Significance
The Imperial Constitution of 1871 was a foundational document that formalised the new German Empire’s structure. It was largely based on the 1867 North German Confederation constitution but modified to accommodate the southern states.
The Federal Nature of the Empire
Despite its imperial title, the new German Empire was a federal state, comprising 25 constituent states (including four kingdoms, six grand duchies, and numerous duchies and principalities) plus the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck.
Map showing the constituent states of the German Empire, including kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, and free cities. It illustrates the federal structure and diversity of the empire formed in 1871. Extra detail: the map includes state flags, which exceed syllabus requirements but support geographic context. Source
Each state retained significant autonomy over internal matters such as education, justice, and local administration.
However, foreign policy, defence, customs, and communications were centralised under imperial authority.
This dual structure reflected a compromise between the aspirations of German nationalists and the desire of individual states to preserve their identities and privileges.
Institutions of Imperial Governance
The 1871 constitution established a political framework that balanced federalism with strong executive power centred on Prussia.
Organisational chart illustrating the structure of the German Empire under the 1871 constitution, showing relationships between the Kaiser, Chancellor, Bundesrat, and Reichstag. It highlights the distribution of power and the balance between executive authority and parliamentary elements. Source
The Kaiser
The Kaiser (Emperor) was the head of state, a role automatically held by the King of Prussia.
He commanded the armed forces, conducted foreign policy, and had the power to appoint and dismiss the Chancellor.
His authority symbolised the continuity of monarchical power within the new national state.
Kaiser: The German Emperor and head of state of the German Empire from 1871, combining the roles of monarch and federal leader.
The Chancellor
The Chancellor was the chief minister and the Emperor’s principal adviser.
Appointed by the Kaiser, he was responsible for government policy and administration.
Crucially, he was not accountable to the Reichstag, limiting parliamentary influence.
This concentration of power ensured executive dominance, particularly under Bismarck, who shaped imperial policy and mediated between the Kaiser, Bundesrat, and Reichstag.
The Bundesrat
The Bundesrat, or Federal Council, represented the member states and played a vital legislative role.
It had 58 seats, with Prussia controlling 17—enough to veto constitutional amendments.
It shared legislative powers with the Reichstag and approved treaties and declarations of war.
The Bundesrat reflected the federal character of the empire, giving smaller states a voice while reinforcing Prussia’s dominance.
The Reichstag
The Reichstag, elected by universal male suffrage over the age of 25, was the national parliament.
It debated and passed legislation, particularly on financial matters.
However, its powers were limited: it could not dismiss the Chancellor, and the Kaiser could dissolve it with Bundesrat consent.
Despite these constraints, the Reichstag provided a platform for political parties and public opinion, contributing to the development of mass politics in Imperial Germany.
Consequences for German Nationalism and Identity
The creation of the empire and its constitution profoundly influenced German nationalism:
The new state embodied the Kleindeutsch vision, uniting Germany under Prussian leadership without Austria.
Victory in war and imperial unification fostered a sense of national pride and identity, though regional, religious, and cultural differences persisted.
Federal structures ensured the survival of particularist loyalties, while imperial symbols—the Kaiser, the army, and the Reich—cultivated national unity.
The constitutional framework balanced tradition and modernity: monarchical authority coexisted with parliamentary institutions, and state sovereignty with national unity. However, the dominance of Prussia and the Kaiser meant that Germany’s political system remained authoritarian in nature, limiting liberal and democratic aspirations.
Long-Term Political Implications
The consequences of the 1867–1871 constitutional developments extended well beyond unification:
They institutionalised Prussian military and bureaucratic influence, embedding it into the imperial state.
The tension between authoritarian executive power and democratic elements in the Reichstag persisted, shaping German politics up to 1918.
Federalism and particularism continued to challenge the creation of a fully integrated national identity, influencing debates about unity and diversity within Germany.
The empire’s structure provided stability and cohesion, but its limitations—particularly the lack of parliamentary accountability—would later contribute to political tensions and crises in the early twentieth century.
FAQ
The imperial constitution created structural imbalances that persisted into the early 20th century.
The lack of parliamentary accountability for the Chancellor limited democratic development.
Federal diversity preserved local identities but hindered the formation of a cohesive national political culture.
Prussian dominance alienated southern and liberal factions, sowing discontent.
These tensions contributed to political instability, undermining reform efforts and fuelling divisions that persisted up to the First World War and the fall of the empire in 1918.
The 1871 constitution was largely based on the 1867 framework but introduced changes to integrate the southern states.
The title of the federation changed from “Confederation” to “Empire,” reflecting a stronger sense of unity.
The King of Prussia now held the title Kaiser, emphasising imperial authority.
Southern states gained concessions, such as Bavaria retaining its own army in peacetime and postal system.
The Bundesrat was expanded to include new members from southern states, slightly altering the balance of power but leaving Prussian dominance intact.
Although less visible than the Reichstag, the Bundesrat was a crucial pillar of imperial governance.
It had to approve all legislation, including constitutional changes.
It could veto bills proposed by the Reichstag.
It participated in foreign policy decisions and war declarations.
Prussia’s 17 votes gave it the power to block constitutional amendments, ensuring it retained control.
This meant that despite federal representation, the Bundesrat’s structure allowed Prussia to dominate the legislative process.
Bismarck offered symbolic and practical concessions to secure southern cooperation:
Bavaria and Württemberg kept their own armies in peacetime and maintained control over postal and railway systems.
Bavaria was granted special privileges in diplomacy, retaining influence over certain foreign affairs.
Southern states received guaranteed representation in the Bundesrat.
These concessions reassured states concerned about Prussian dominance, allowing unification while preserving regional autonomy.
The constitutional structure shaped party politics by creating both opportunities and constraints.
Universal male suffrage for the Reichstag encouraged mass political participation and the growth of parties such as the National Liberals and the Social Democratic Party (SPD).
However, the Reichstag’s limited power meant parties had little influence over government policy, leading to frustration and political polarisation.
The reliance on imperial authority fostered a conservative bias, as the Kaiser and Chancellor could often ignore parliamentary opinion.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two key institutions established by the 1871 German Imperial Constitution and briefly state their roles.
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for identifying each correct institution and 1 mark for correctly describing its role.
Kaiser – Head of state, commanded the armed forces, appointed the Chancellor, and directed foreign policy.
Chancellor – Chief minister responsible for government policy and administration, appointed by the Kaiser.
Bundesrat – Federal Council representing the member states, shared legislative powers and could approve treaties.
Reichstag – National parliament elected by universal male suffrage, debated and passed legislation, particularly on financial matters.
(Maximum 2 marks)
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how the 1871 constitution reflected both federalism and Prussian dominance in the new German Empire.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic description with limited understanding. May mention federal structure or Prussian dominance but with little detail or explanation.
E.g. “Germany was a federal state but Prussia was still powerful.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Clear explanation of both aspects, with supporting detail.
The empire was a federal state of 25 constituent states, each retaining autonomy over internal matters.
States were represented in the Bundesrat, which shared legislative powers with the Reichstag.
Level 3 (5 marks): Detailed explanation showing clear understanding of how federalism and Prussian dominance coexisted.
Federalism was maintained through state autonomy and representation in the Bundesrat.
However, Prussia’s dominance was ensured by structural advantages: the Kaiser was always the King of Prussia, the Chancellor was appointed by him, and Prussia held 17 of 58 Bundesrat seats, allowing it to veto constitutional change.
This created a balance where states retained some powers but Prussia remained politically and militarily pre-eminent.
(Maximum 5 marks)
