OCR Specification focus:
‘Foreign policy aims and methods, and relations with the Reichstag, 1884–1914.’
Between 1884 and 1914, German foreign policy under Kaiser Wilhelm II transformed dramatically, shaping imperial ambitions and diplomatic strategy while redefining the Reichstag’s role in national governance.
Wilhelm II and the Transformation of Foreign Policy
The End of Bismarck’s Era
The dismissal of Otto von Bismarck in 1890 marked a decisive shift in German foreign policy. Bismarck had pursued Realpolitik — a pragmatic approach prioritising balance of power and alliances to preserve peace and Germany’s security. Wilhelm II, by contrast, favoured a more assertive and ambitious foreign policy, underpinned by the doctrine of Weltpolitik.
Weltpolitik: A German imperial policy under Kaiser Wilhelm II aimed at expanding Germany’s global influence, colonial possessions, and naval power to establish the nation as a world power.
This change reflected Wilhelm’s personal belief in Germany’s “place in the sun”, seeking parity with Britain and France as a colonial and naval power. It also marked a departure from Bismarck’s cautious diplomacy, which had relied heavily on isolating France and maintaining strong ties with Austria-Hungary and Russia.
Aims and Strategies of German Foreign Policy (1884–1914)
Imperial Expansion and Colonial Policy
From the mid-1880s, Germany intensified its colonial ambitions. Although it entered the imperial race later than Britain and France, it sought to secure territories in Africa, the Pacific, and China.
Acquisition of German South-West Africa, Cameroon, Togoland, and German East Africa expanded the empire.
A locator map of the German Empire and its overseas colonies in 1914, including Kiautschou in China and Pacific territories. It illustrates Germany’s imperial reach that underpinned Weltpolitik and triggered budgetary debates in the Reichstag. Source
Participation in the Berlin Conference (1884–85) formalised Germany’s colonial claims and reflected its rising global status.
The Kiautschou Bay concession (1897) in China illustrated ambitions in Asia.
Colonial ventures were driven by a mix of economic motives, strategic considerations, and nationalist ideology. However, they were often costly and controversial, sparking debate in the Reichstag, where Social Democrats and liberals frequently opposed imperial projects as wasteful and immoral.
Naval Expansion and Global Ambition
Central to Wilhelm II’s Weltpolitik was the development of a powerful navy to challenge Britain’s naval supremacy.
Flottenpolitik: German naval policy under Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz aimed at building a fleet capable of rivaling Britain’s Royal Navy and protecting Germany’s overseas empire.
The First Naval Law (1898) and Second Naval Law (1900) authorised rapid expansion of the navy.
SMS Nassau, one of Germany’s first dreadnought-class battleships, embodies the impact of Tirpitz’s naval laws and Germany’s bid to rival British sea power. Its design highlights the shift toward global naval projection. Source
Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, as State Secretary of the Navy, argued that naval power was essential for empire and global prestige.
Naval growth intensified Anglo-German rivalry, straining relations and undermining earlier attempts to form an alliance with Britain.
This naval race symbolised Germany’s transformation from a continental to a global power but also heightened European tensions and contributed to the militarisation of foreign policy.
Alliance Systems and Diplomatic Shifts
Wilhelm II’s more erratic diplomacy altered Germany’s alliance network:
Bismarck’s Reinsurance Treaty with Russia (1887) lapsed in 1890, leading Russia to ally with France (Franco-Russian Alliance, 1894).
The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) remained, but was weakened by Italy’s unreliability and conflicting interests.
Attempts to improve relations with Britain, such as the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty (1890), failed due to naval rivalry and colonial competition.
Germany’s aggressive posturing and diplomatic isolation contributed to the formation of the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) — a development that encircled Germany and heightened the risk of conflict.
Relations with the Reichstag: Cooperation and Conflict
The Reichstag’s Constitutional Role
The Reichstag, the German imperial parliament, had limited constitutional powers over foreign policy. Executive authority lay with the Kaiser and the Chancellor, but the Reichstag controlled the budget, including funding for the army, navy, and colonial ventures.
Reichstag: The legislative assembly of the German Empire, elected by universal male suffrage, with powers primarily over budgets and legislation, but limited influence over foreign policy decisions.
This financial authority allowed the Reichstag to influence imperial policy indirectly. Governments needed parliamentary approval for military spending, colonial budgets, and naval expansion — forcing negotiation and compromise.
Support and Opposition in the Reichstag
Political parties varied in their support for imperial policy:
Conservative and National Liberal parties generally supported expansionist policies and naval bills.
The Social Democratic Party (SPD), increasingly powerful by the early 20th century, opposed militarism, colonialism, and aggressive diplomacy.
The Centre Party, representing Catholic interests, often acted as a swing vote, supporting some naval and colonial measures but opposing others.
The Navy Laws demonstrated this dynamic: Tirpitz built cross-party alliances to pass the 1898 and 1900 laws, appealing to nationalist sentiment and promising jobs and prestige. Yet the Hottentot Election (1907), fought over colonial policy in German South-West Africa, showed how imperial issues polarised politics, with the SPD making significant gains despite a government campaign portraying them as unpatriotic.
Crises and Foreign Policy Challenges
Colonial and Diplomatic Flashpoints
Germany’s assertive foreign policy led to numerous international crises:
The First Moroccan Crisis (1905–06), when Wilhelm II supported Moroccan independence against French control, backfired by strengthening the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France.
The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911), sparked by Germany’s gunboat diplomacy in Agadir, further isolated Germany and alarmed Britain.
These crises revealed the limits of Weltpolitik and intensified the perception of Germany as a destabilising force in Europe.
Domestic Repercussions and the Reichstag’s Role
Crises abroad influenced domestic politics. Imperialist policies were used to rally public support and undermine socialist opposition — a phenomenon known as Sammlungspolitik.
Sammlungspolitik: A policy of political unity promoted by conservative elites to unite the nation behind the monarchy and imperial policy, marginalising socialist and liberal opposition.
However, growing SPD strength (becoming the largest party by 1912) limited the government’s ability to rely on parliamentary support for aggressive foreign policy. Chancellors increasingly bypassed the Reichstag, using imperial prerogative and public opinion to justify decisions.
The Eve of War and the Reichstag’s Position
By 1914, Germany’s foreign policy was characterised by:
A powerful navy but strained relations with Britain.
Strategic isolation within a hostile alliance system.
Deepening domestic divisions over militarism and imperialism.
The Reichstag, though lacking direct control, remained central to funding policy and reflecting public sentiment. On the outbreak of the First World War, even the SPD supported war credits — illustrating how foreign policy and nationalism could temporarily transcend political divisions.
FAQ
Bismarck’s Realpolitik focused on preserving Germany’s security by maintaining a balance of power in Europe, isolating France, and forming practical alliances. He avoided colonial expansion that might provoke rival powers.
Weltpolitik, introduced by Wilhelm II, aimed to make Germany a global power through overseas empire-building, naval expansion, and assertive diplomacy. This shift prioritised prestige and influence beyond Europe, even at the risk of diplomatic isolation. It reflected Wilhelm’s more personal, ideological vision and departed from Bismarck’s cautious, stability-oriented strategy.
Tirpitz was central to Germany’s naval expansion, crafting Flottenpolitik and convincing the Reichstag to fund massive fleet-building programmes.
He engineered the Navy Laws (1898, 1900), setting ambitious targets for battleship construction.
His “risk theory” argued that a powerful German fleet could deter Britain, even if not larger, by making a naval conflict too costly.
Tirpitz used nationalist propaganda and alliances with conservatives and industrialists to secure public and parliamentary backing.
His policies intensified the Anglo-German naval race and were pivotal in pushing Germany towards global ambitions.
The election centred on controversy over Germany’s brutal suppression of uprisings in German South-West Africa. The government portrayed opponents of colonial spending, especially the SPD, as unpatriotic.
The result saw conservative and liberal parties increase their representation, enabling continued colonial and naval policies. However, it also demonstrated the politicisation of foreign policy issues and how imperialism became a tool to shape domestic politics.
It marked a turning point in Sammlungspolitik, as elites used nationalism and foreign policy to rally support and marginalise socialist opposition.
Germany’s involvement in Morocco (1905–06 and 1911) aimed to weaken France and test the strength of the Entente Cordiale. Instead, both crises backfired.
The Algeciras Conference (1906) left Germany diplomatically isolated as most powers sided with France.
The Agadir Crisis (1911) deepened Anglo-French cooperation and increased British suspicion of Germany.
These failures revealed the limits of Weltpolitik, eroded Germany’s diplomatic credibility, and pushed rival powers closer together — contributing to the alliance structures that preceded the First World War.
Foreign policy was not solely dictated by the Kaiser and his advisers; domestic politics played a key role.
Governments needed Reichstag approval for military and colonial budgets, shaping the scope of foreign initiatives.
Nationalist pressure groups such as the Navy League lobbied for expansion, influencing both public opinion and parliamentary votes.
Fear of SPD growth led elites to promote imperialism as a unifying cause, using foreign policy to consolidate conservative support.
Thus, decisions on empire, naval policy, and diplomacy were often crafted with domestic political calculations in mind.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two key aims of German foreign policy under Kaiser Wilhelm II between 1884 and 1914.
Mark scheme (2 marks total):
1 mark for each correctly identified aim.
Accept any two of the following (or other valid points):
Expanding Germany’s colonial empire (Weltpolitik)
Building a powerful navy to rival Britain (Flottenpolitik)
Establishing Germany as a global power (“place in the sun”)
Securing overseas markets and influence
Enhancing Germany’s diplomatic position in Europe
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Reichstag influenced foreign policy decisions in Germany between 1884 and 1914.
Mark scheme (6 marks total):
Award up to 6 marks for a well-explained response showing understanding of the Reichstag’s role and limitations.
1–2 marks: Basic statements about the Reichstag, e.g. it voted on budgets or had limited power over foreign policy.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of how the Reichstag’s control of military, naval, and colonial funding allowed it to shape or challenge policy (e.g. debates over naval bills or colonial spending).
5–6 marks: Developed explanation with specific examples, such as:
Reichstag’s approval was required for Navy Laws (1898, 1900).
Opposition from the SPD and other parties limited government freedom on colonial or military matters.
Elections (e.g. the Hottentot Election of 1907) reflected public opinion and influenced foreign policy direction.
Despite its influence over budgets, ultimate foreign-policy authority remained with the Kaiser and Chancellor, limiting the Reichstag’s power.
