OCR Specification focus:
‘Five Year Plans and collectivisation transformed industry and agriculture.’
Between 1928 and the early 1960s, Soviet economic policy was radically reshaped by the introduction of the Five Year Plans and collectivisation, transforming industry, agriculture, and society.
The Launch of the Five Year Plans
The Five Year Plans were a series of state-directed economic programmes introduced by Joseph Stalin from 1928 to modernise the Soviet Union. They aimed to transform a predominantly agrarian society into an industrial superpower capable of rivaling Western powers.
Background and Aims
The Soviet leadership believed rapid industrialisation was essential for both ideological and security reasons. Stalin declared that the USSR was “fifty to a hundred years behind” advanced nations and had to catch up in a decade.
Key aims included:
Rapid industrial growth to strengthen the economy and defence.
Creation of a socialist economy by eliminating capitalist elements.
Building a military-industrial base for national security.
Reducing dependence on Western imports and expertise.
Implementation and Features of the Five Year Plans
Centralised Planning and Gosplan
The plans were directed by Gosplan, the State Planning Committee, which set ambitious production targets for every major sector.
Gosplan: The central economic planning agency responsible for setting and overseeing production targets and resource allocation during the Soviet Five Year Plans.
Key Features
Emphasis on heavy industry (coal, steel, iron, oil, machinery).
Establishment of state-run enterprises and new industrial cities.
Massive mobilisation of labour, including prisoners from the Gulag.
Strict state control over resources and production priorities.
Use of propaganda and “Stakhanovite” campaigns to inspire productivity.
The First Three Five Year Plans (1928–1941)
First Five Year Plan (1928–1932)
Focused on heavy industry and infrastructure.
Output of coal, iron, and steel increased dramatically.
Industrial centres like Magnitogorsk were built from scratch.
Consumer goods and living standards stagnated or declined.
Second Five Year Plan (1933–1937)
Continued emphasis on heavy industry, but more attention to transport and communications.
Expansion of the chemical industry and improvement in electricity generation.
Some improvement in consumer goods production.
Show trials and purges disrupted administration and productivity.
Third Five Year Plan (1938–1941)
Shifted towards armaments and defence production due to the growing threat of war.
Interrupted by Operation Barbarossa in 1941.
Despite disruptions, industrial capacity greatly increased.
Collectivisation: Revolution in Agriculture
While the Five Year Plans targeted industrialisation, collectivisation aimed to transform agriculture to support the new economy.
Objectives of Collectivisation
Increase grain procurement to feed urban workers and fund industrialisation through exports.
Eliminate the kulaks (wealthier peasants) as a class.
Consolidate farms into collective (kolkhozy) and state farms (sovkhozy).
Bring agriculture under direct state control.
Kolkhoz: A collective farm where peasants pooled land and labour under state supervision while sharing output.
Sovkhoz: A state-owned farm run by state employees receiving wages, more directly controlled by the government.
Process and Implementation of Collectivisation
Began in 1929 with coercive state campaigns to force peasants into collective farms.
The state launched dekulakisation, confiscating property and deporting or executing kulaks.
Komsomol activists seizing hidden grain from “kulaks” in Ukraine, 1930. This image shows the coercive nature of dekulakisation and the methods used to enforce state grain quotas. Source
Resistance was widespread, with many peasants slaughtering livestock rather than surrendering them.
By 1936, over 90% of peasant households were collectivised.
Consequences of Collectivisation
Economic Consequences
Grain procurement increased, providing resources for industrialisation and exports.
However, agricultural productivity initially fell, leading to disastrous shortages
The famine of 1932–33, particularly in Ukraine (Holodomor), caused millions of deaths.
Livestock numbers fell by around 50% between 1928 and 1933.
Social Consequences
Traditional rural life was destroyed as peasants lost control over land and labour.
Kulaks were eliminated as a class, with many sent to labour camps.
Rural communities became tightly controlled by the state through collective farms.
Impact on Industry and Urban Society
The grain procured through collectivisation financed the import of machinery and technology, fuelling industrial growth.
A McCormick-Deering 15-30 tractor in the Ukrainian SSR, April 1931. Locally produced versions of such machinery symbolised the mechanisation of Soviet agriculture during the first Five Year Plan. Source
Rapid industrialisation led to:
Expansion of urban populations as peasants migrated to new industrial centres.
Creation of new social classes, including a technocratic elite and industrial workforce.
Harsh working conditions, long hours, and strict discipline in factories.
Emergence of model workers like Alexei Stakhanov, used to promote productivity drives.
Post-War Five Year Plans and Continued Transformation
After the Second World War, further Five Year Plans focused on reconstruction and continued industrial growth.
The Fourth Plan (1946–1950) rebuilt war-damaged infrastructure, again prioritising heavy industry.
The Fifth Plan (1951–1955) continued this emphasis but with limited success in consumer goods.
Under Khrushchev, the Sixth Plan (1956–1960) was abandoned early due to unrealistic targets, reflecting challenges in central planning.
Legacy and Historical Significance
The Five Year Plans and collectivisation fundamentally transformed the Soviet Union:
The USSR became a major industrial power, capable of defeating Nazi Germany and competing in the Cold War.
Despite industrial success, agriculture remained inefficient and living standards were often poor.
The policies entrenched state control over economy and society, reinforcing the totalitarian nature of the regime.
The immense human cost — including famine, repression, and forced labour — remains one of the most debated aspects of Soviet history.
FAQ
Foreign engineers, companies, and specialists were crucial during the early Five Year Plans, as the USSR lacked sufficient technical knowledge and experience to build large-scale industries.
American firms like Ford and Albert Kahn Inc. helped design and construct factories, including the massive Gorky car plant.
German and British engineers provided machinery and expertise for steel and chemical industries.
Soviet workers were trained by foreign specialists, accelerating the development of a skilled workforce.
However, reliance on foreign expertise declined by the mid-1930s as domestic skills improved and Stalin pursued greater self-sufficiency.
Collectivisation fundamentally shifted the balance of power in favour of the state. Before 1928, peasants had some autonomy, producing for their own consumption and selling surpluses on the market.
After collectivisation, all land became state-controlled, and peasants worked as part of collective or state farms.
The state determined production quotas and seized grain to supply cities and export markets.
Local party officials and political police closely monitored villages, eroding traditional authority structures.
This shift turned the peasantry from semi-independent producers into a workforce directly controlled by the Soviet state.
Resistance stemmed from deep cultural, economic, and social reasons. Peasants saw collectivisation as a direct attack on their way of life, property, and religious traditions.
Many refused to hand over land, livestock, and equipment, viewing collective farms as a return to serfdom.
Acts of defiance included slaughtering animals, destroying crops, and fleeing to cities.
The state responded with brutal repression:
Dekulakisation campaigns targeted wealthier peasants for execution or deportation.
The OGPU secret police enforced grain requisition and arrested resisters.
Villages were blacklisted, cut off from supplies, and starved into submission.
Although heavy industry remained central, the focus of each plan evolved according to economic and political needs.
First Plan (1928–32): Emphasised rapid growth in coal, iron, steel, and electricity; consumer goods were neglected.
Second Plan (1933–37): Consolidated earlier gains, expanded transport and communication networks, and slightly improved consumer goods production.
Third Plan (1938–41): Prioritised military production in response to rising global tensions, with resources diverted to armaments and defence industries.
Each phase reflected Stalin’s shifting objectives — from catch-up modernisation to strategic preparation for war.
While collectivisation provided grain for export and financed industrialisation, it left Soviet agriculture with enduring weaknesses.
Productivity remained low due to lack of incentives, poor management, and state interference.
Chronic inefficiencies led to recurring shortages and a reliance on extensive farming rather than technological innovation.
Rural discontent persisted, and the peasantry remained deeply mistrustful of the state.
These structural problems meant that Soviet agriculture lagged behind Western counterparts throughout the 20th century, contributing to food supply issues well into the post-Stalin era.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two main aims of Stalin’s Five Year Plans introduced from 1928.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correctly identified aim.
To rapidly industrialise the Soviet Union and transform it into a major industrial power. (1)
To strengthen national defence by building a strong military-industrial base. (1)
To reduce reliance on Western imports and expertise. (1)
To create a socialist economy by eliminating capitalist elements. (1)
(Maximum 2 marks)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how collectivisation affected the lives of the peasantry in the Soviet Union.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
General or superficial statements with little specific detail.
May mention that peasants were forced onto collective farms or faced hardship without explanation.
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation of the effects of collectivisation on peasant life, with some supporting detail.
May refer to resistance, the loss of land, or famine, but lacks depth or range.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear, detailed explanation with a range of well-selected examples.
Likely to include points such as:
Peasants were forced into collective farms (kolkhozy) and lost control over their land and produce. (1)
The policy of dekulakisation led to confiscation of property, deportations, and executions. (1)
Many peasants resisted by slaughtering livestock, leading to severe losses in animal numbers. (1)
Agricultural productivity initially declined, contributing to the famine of 1932–33, which caused millions of deaths. (1)
Traditional rural life and community structures were destroyed under state control. (1)
(Maximum 6 marks)
