OCR Specification focus:
‘The Provisional Government’s nature and domestic policies sought stability.’
The Provisional Government, established in 1917 after Nicholas II’s abdication, sought to stabilise Russia amid war, revolution and social unrest through liberal reforms and cautious policy decisions.
The Nature of the Provisional Government
Origins and Establishment in 1917
The Provisional Government was formed in March 1917 following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II during the February Revolution. Its creation marked a pivotal shift from centuries of autocratic rule to an attempt at liberal, constitutional governance.
It emerged from the State Duma, the partially representative legislative body under the Tsars.
Its initial members were mainly liberal politicians from parties such as the Kadets (Constitutional Democrats) and Octobrists.
The first Prime Minister was Prince Georgy Lvov, later replaced by Alexander Kerensky in July 1917.
First cabinet of the Russian Provisional Government in March 1917. Prince Georgy Lvov sits at the far left; Alexander Kerensky stands second from the right. The image illustrates the early liberal–moderate coalition that attempted to govern amidst crisis. Source
Provisional Government: A temporary governing body established in Russia in March 1917 to replace the autocracy until a Constituent Assembly could determine the future political system.
The Provisional Government was never intended to be permanent. Its primary purpose was to govern temporarily and prepare Russia for a democratically elected Constituent Assembly, which would decide the country’s future political structure.
Dual Power and Political Limitations
The Petrograd Soviet and Shared Authority
A defining feature of the Provisional Government’s nature was its lack of absolute authority. Alongside it existed the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies, a revolutionary council that held significant power over soldiers, workers, and communication networks.
This situation, termed Dual Power, created constant tension and undermined governmental authority.
The Soviet issued Order No. 1, instructing soldiers to obey government orders only if they did not contradict Soviet directives, effectively limiting the government’s military control.
The Soviet’s influence meant the Provisional Government depended on cooperation rather than direct control.
Dual Power emerged: the Provisional Government claimed legal authority while the Petrograd Soviet exerted decisive influence over workers and soldiers.
Tauride Palace, Petrograd, where both the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet operated in March 1917. Its dual occupancy symbolised the power-sharing arrangement and political tension that defined Dual Power. Source
Dual Power: The coexistence of the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet from March to October 1917, resulting in a divided and often conflicting authority in Russia.
The government’s legitimacy was therefore fragile, reliant on public confidence and Soviet cooperation, both of which declined as the year progressed.
Domestic Policies and Their Aims
Liberal Reforms and Early Initiatives
Determined to break with the repressive legacy of Tsarism, the Provisional Government enacted several liberal domestic reforms aimed at gaining popular support and stabilising society.
Key early policies included:
Abolition of the Okhrana (the Tsarist secret police) and release of political prisoners.
Introduction of freedom of speech, press, and assembly, expanding Russia’s civil liberties.
Amnesty for political exiles, allowing revolutionaries and dissidents to return.
Plans for universal suffrage and the election of a Constituent Assembly.
These policies reflected the government’s commitment to democratic principles and its desire to distance itself from autocratic repression. However, they also enabled revolutionary groups, such as the Bolsheviks, to operate openly and increase their influence.
Land Reform and Peasant Expectations
A central domestic challenge was the agrarian question. Peasants demanded redistribution of land from large estates, but the Provisional Government delayed land reform, arguing that only a Constituent Assembly had the authority to enact such sweeping change.
This cautious approach frustrated peasants, who began seizing land illegally in many regions.
The government’s failure to act decisively eroded rural support, particularly as the summer of 1917 brought increased disorder in the countryside.
Attempts to suppress land seizures using force often alienated the peasantry further.
Workers’ Rights and Industrial Policy
The government faced mounting unrest in urban areas, where industrial workers demanded improved conditions, shorter working hours, and greater control over factories.
It recognised trade unions and legalised strikes, but resisted calls for workers’ control of production.
Economic conditions worsened as inflation soared, supplies dwindled, and wages failed to keep pace with rising prices.
The government’s inability to improve living standards undermined its support among workers, who increasingly turned to the more radical policies of the Soviets and Bolsheviks.
Continued War Effort and Its Domestic Consequences
Decision to Remain in the First World War
Perhaps the most controversial policy decision was the Provisional Government’s commitment to continue fighting in the First World War. Despite widespread public and military opposition, leaders believed that abandoning the war would betray Russia’s allies and jeopardise future international support.
The June 1917 Kerensky Offensive, a major military campaign, ended in catastrophic defeat and triggered widespread disillusionment.
Desertions increased, morale collapsed, and soldiers’ loyalty to the government waned.
Continued war efforts drained economic resources, exacerbating food shortages and industrial breakdowns.
The decision to persist with the war severely weakened the government’s legitimacy and allowed revolutionary parties to portray it as indifferent to popular suffering.
Political Developments and Shifts in Power
Leadership Changes and Internal Divisions
The Provisional Government struggled with internal divisions and frequent changes in leadership, which contributed to its instability.
In July 1917, following the July Days uprising in Petrograd, Kerensky replaced Lvov as Prime Minister.
Nevsky Prospekt, Petrograd, 4 July 1917: demonstrators under fire from Provisional Government forces during the July Days. Captured by Viktor Bulla, the photo shows the volatility that weakened governmental authority and precipitated leadership change. Source
Kerensky attempted to stabilise the regime by balancing socialist and liberal forces, but this alienated both sides.
The failed Kornilov Affair in August 1917, a coup attempt by General Lavr Kornilov, further weakened the government and damaged Kerensky’s credibility.
These crises exposed the government’s lack of control over the military and political factions, leaving it vulnerable to revolutionary challenges.
Preparation for the Constituent Assembly
Despite mounting challenges, the Provisional Government remained committed to convening a Constituent Assembly to decide Russia’s political future.
Elections were scheduled for November 1917, and preparations continued throughout the year.
However, the government failed to maintain authority long enough for the Assembly to convene.
In October 1917, the Bolshevik Revolution overthrew the Provisional Government before it could achieve its central goal.
Legacy of Nature and Domestic Policies
The Provisional Government’s nature as a temporary, liberal, and constitutional authority shaped its domestic policies, which aimed to secure stability through reform, democracy, and moderation. However, its lack of authority, failure to address key social and economic issues, and decision to continue the war meant that its policies often alienated the very groups it sought to win over. The result was a weak, divided regime unable to withstand the revolutionary forces gathering against it by October 1917.
FAQ
Prince Georgy Lvov, a liberal nobleman and head of the All-Russian Union of Zemstvos, became the first Prime Minister in March 1917.
He prioritised democratic reforms, such as civil liberties and political freedoms, and sought to establish legitimacy through moderation and legality. However, his reluctance to enact radical measures, especially on land reform and ending the war, created disillusionment among peasants and workers.
Lvov also struggled to manage tensions between liberal and socialist factions within the government. By July 1917, his inability to stabilise the situation and rising revolutionary pressures led him to resign, paving the way for Alexander Kerensky’s leadership.
After abolishing the Okhrana, the Provisional Government relied on local police, militias, and revolutionary committees to maintain public order.
Militia forces were largely volunteer-based and often sympathetic to socialist movements, limiting their effectiveness.
Soldiers’ soviets sometimes refused to suppress demonstrations, especially if they aligned with revolutionary aims.
Judicial reforms aimed to introduce more impartial and democratic systems, but these were slow to implement.
The government’s limited coercive power made it difficult to curb unrest, contributing to frequent strikes, protests, and uprisings such as the July Days.
Leaders believed that sweeping land reform should be decided by a democratically elected Constituent Assembly, not a temporary government. They feared that premature redistribution would alienate landowners and destabilise the economy.
This cautious stance backfired. Peasants began seizing land themselves, forming local committees to redistribute estates without government sanction.
The inability to meet rural demands eroded trust and support, leaving the Provisional Government isolated in the countryside and strengthening Bolshevik appeals for “Peace, Land, and Bread.”
Issued by the Petrograd Soviet in March 1917, Order No. 1 instructed soldiers to obey Provisional Government orders only if they did not contradict Soviet directives.
This undermined the government’s control over the military, as soldiers prioritised Soviet authority. Discipline within the army collapsed, desertions increased, and commanders struggled to enforce orders.
The Provisional Government, dependent on military support for stability, was weakened both in Petrograd and on the front. The order also symbolised the broader challenge of Dual Power, where ultimate authority often lay with the Soviets rather than the government.
The June Offensive, launched by Minister of War Alexander Kerensky, aimed to revive Russian morale and strengthen the Provisional Government’s credibility with the Allies.
Initially met with patriotic enthusiasm, it quickly turned disastrous as demoralised troops refused to advance, resulting in heavy losses and retreats.
The defeat shattered public confidence, fuelled anti-war sentiment, and strengthened the Bolsheviks’ appeal as the only party promising an immediate end to the war. It also deepened divisions within the government and accelerated the erosion of its authority.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two domestic policies introduced by the Provisional Government in 1917.
Mark Scheme (2 marks total):
Award 1 mark for each correct policy identified. Accept any two of the following:
Abolition of the Okhrana (Tsarist secret police)
Introduction of freedom of speech, press, and assembly
Amnesty for political exiles
Legalisation of trade unions and strikes
Plans for universal suffrage and election of a Constituent Assembly
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the Provisional Government struggled to maintain authority in 1917.
Mark Scheme (6 marks total):
Award marks according to the depth and accuracy of explanation.
1–2 marks: Basic statements or simple points with little or no explanation. May identify one or two reasons (e.g. Dual Power, continuation of war) without detail.
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of at least two reasons with some supporting detail. Some understanding of cause and consequence is shown.
5–6 marks: Detailed explanation of at least two well-developed reasons with specific evidence. Answers should show clear understanding of how these factors undermined authority.
Indicative content may include:
Dual Power: The Petrograd Soviet issued Order No. 1, limiting government authority and undermining its control over the army.
War continuation: Decision to remain in the First World War caused discontent, military defeats, desertions, and resource shortages.
Social and economic issues: Failure to enact land reform or improve living and working conditions led to loss of peasant and worker support.
Political instability: Leadership changes, internal divisions, and events like the July Days and Kornilov Affair damaged credibility.
