OCR Specification focus:
‘Opposition challenged power as urban and rural conditions fluctuated.’
The Provisional Government (March–October 1917) faced escalating opposition and severe social instability. Urban discontent, rural land hunger, and political radicalisation undermined its fragile authority.
Opposition to the Provisional Government
The Provisional Government was a temporary, liberal coalition formed after the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in March 1917. It sought to establish a constitutional democracy and continue Russia’s participation in the First World War, but it faced constant pressure from multiple sources of opposition.
Dual Power and the Petrograd Soviet
The most significant challenge came from the Petrograd Soviet, an elected body of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies representing revolutionary grassroots interests. Although the Provisional Government held formal authority, real power was divided in a system known as Dual Power.
Session of the Petrograd Soviet in the Tauride Palace, 1917. The photograph highlights the Soviet’s broad representation of workers and soldiers and its procedural legitimacy to issue orders such as Order No. 1. It directly contextualises the government’s loss of uncontested authority under Dual Power. Source
Dual Power: The coexistence of two rival authorities — the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet — from March to October 1917, each claiming legitimacy but often conflicting in policy.
The Soviet issued Order No. 1 (March 1917), instructing soldiers to obey the Provisional Government only if orders did not contradict Soviet decrees, severely undermining governmental authority.
Soviet control over key areas like railways, communications, and the army limited the government’s capacity to govern effectively.
The Soviet often opposed the government’s decisions, especially regarding the continuation of the war and land reform, further eroding public confidence.
Socialist Parties and Radical Opposition
A range of socialist groups opposed the liberal policies of the Provisional Government:
Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) initially cooperated with the government but demanded faster social and economic reforms.
The Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin, were uncompromising. Returning from exile in April 1917, Lenin issued the April Theses, calling for “All power to the Soviets,” withdrawal from the war, and land redistribution.
April Theses: A set of radical directives issued by Lenin in April 1917 calling for Soviet power, peace, land reform, and the overthrow of the Provisional Government.
Bolshevik influence grew rapidly, particularly among industrial workers, soldiers, and sailors, who were disillusioned by the government’s failures.
By summer 1917, the Bolsheviks had become a dominant revolutionary force, positioning themselves as the alternative to a government seen as weak and ineffective.
Armed Challenges and Revolutionary Pressure
The Provisional Government faced several armed uprisings and conspiracies:
April Crisis (April 1917): Public protests erupted when Foreign Minister Milyukov pledged to continue the war, forcing his resignation and exposing divisions within the government.
July Days (July 1917): Spontaneous uprisings in Petrograd by soldiers, workers, and Bolshevik supporters demanded Soviet power. The government suppressed the demonstrations, arresting Bolshevik leaders and portraying them as German agents, though the movement’s popularity endured.
Nevsky Prospekt, Petrograd, 4 July 1917 — cadets and Cossacks fire on a workers’ demonstration during the July Days. The image conveys the intensity of urban confrontation that discredited the Provisional Government and fuelled radicalisation. Clean composition and clear sightlines make key actors and street setting legible to students. Source
Kornilov Affair (August 1917): General Lavr Kornilov attempted a right-wing coup to restore order and crush socialism. Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky armed the Soviets to defend Petrograd, strengthening the Bolsheviks’ position and discrediting the government further.
Social Conditions: Urban and Rural Realities
The Provisional Government’s failure to address worsening social conditions deepened opposition and destabilised Russia’s political landscape.
Urban Social Conditions
Life in the cities deteriorated drastically between March and October 1917:
Food shortages became acute due to transport breakdowns, agricultural dislocation, and prioritisation of the war effort.
International Women’s Day, Petrograd, March 1917. Women workers mobilise around bread scarcity, war weariness, and labour grievances — key drivers of mass protest that intensified urban instability under the Provisional Government. The scene exemplifies how social conditions translated into sustained political pressure. (Includes early-1917 context that precedes July but clarifies the social causes of unrest.) Source
Inflation spiralled, eroding real wages and living standards for industrial workers. By autumn 1917, prices had quadrupled since 1914.
Industrial unrest grew, with strikes, factory committees, and soviet-led demands for workers’ control over production becoming widespread.
Desertions from the front swelled urban populations as disillusioned soldiers returned home, contributing to instability and radicalisation.
These conditions pushed workers towards revolutionary solutions, increasing support for the Bolsheviks’ promises of “Peace, Land, and Bread.”
Rural Social Conditions
The countryside experienced its own social crisis as land hunger and peasant unrest intensified:
The abolition of tsarist land restrictions raised expectations of land redistribution, but the Provisional Government, dominated by liberal landowners, refused to sanction peasant seizures before a Constituent Assembly was elected.
Peasants began seizing land illegally, redistributing estates, burning manor houses, and attacking landlords.
Rural violence increased sharply over summer 1917, undermining state authority in the provinces.
The Socialist Revolutionaries, with their agrarian socialist agenda, gained significant support among the peasantry.
The government’s inability to address the land question decisively alienated the rural majority, depriving it of crucial support.
The Impact of War on Opposition and Society
The ongoing First World War remained a central factor in Russia’s political and social turmoil:
Military defeats, staggering casualties, and poor conditions at the front demoralised soldiers and civilians alike.
Desertion rates soared; by 1917, hundreds of thousands of soldiers abandoned the front, many joining peasant uprisings or urban protests.
War exhaustion magnified demands for immediate peace, a policy the Provisional Government refused to adopt without allied agreement.
Lenin’s anti-war stance attracted mass support, portraying the Bolsheviks as the only party willing to end the suffering.
The Rise of Bolshevik Power
By late 1917, the combined effects of opposition movements and worsening social conditions had fatally weakened the Provisional Government:
Its authority was undermined by Dual Power, military disloyalty, and popular radicalisation.
Its failure to deliver on key issues — peace, land reform, and food supply — destroyed public trust.
The Bolsheviks, presenting themselves as the champions of workers, soldiers, and peasants, seized the opportunity. They gained majorities in the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets by September 1917.
In October 1917, the Bolsheviks launched an armed insurrection, overthrowing the Provisional Government in the October Revolution and transferring power to the soviets, fulfilling Lenin’s revolutionary programme.
FAQ
Dual Power meant that the Provisional Government had to share authority with the Petrograd Soviet, which often held more real influence.
This limited decision-making because policies required Soviet approval to be enforceable, especially those affecting the military and workers. For example, Order No. 1 gave soldiers the right to disregard government orders that contradicted Soviet directives, weakening military discipline.
The government also hesitated to introduce controversial reforms, such as land redistribution, fearing Soviet opposition and further instability.
The Bolsheviks distinguished themselves with a clear, uncompromising programme — “Peace, Land, and Bread” — addressing the immediate concerns of soldiers, peasants, and workers.
They also adopted flexible tactics, shifting from cooperation to direct opposition as conditions changed. Their stance on ending the war contrasted sharply with the government’s continuation of fighting.
Additionally, Bolshevik control over soviets and factory committees allowed them to channel discontent into organised political power, unlike the more cautious Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries.
By 1917, desertion had become widespread due to poor conditions, heavy casualties, and declining morale. Returning soldiers brought revolutionary ideas from the front back to the cities and countryside.
In urban areas, they swelled protest movements and joined soviets, increasing pressure on the government.
In rural regions, they participated in land seizures and violent actions against landlords, destabilising local authority.
The government’s inability to discipline deserters or end the unpopular war highlighted its weakness and fuelled revolutionary sentiment.
Women were central to protests over food shortages and living conditions, particularly in urban centres. On 8 March 1917 (International Women’s Day), female textile workers initiated strikes in Petrograd that quickly escalated into mass demonstrations, sparking wider revolutionary activity.
They organised bread queues, led marches demanding “Bread and Peace,” and spread radical ideas within factories and neighbourhoods.
Their activism illustrated how social issues extended beyond male industrial workers and soldiers, deepening pressure on the Provisional Government to address everyday hardships.
Peasants increasingly rejected traditional landholding structures, demanding redistribution from landlords and the state. The Emancipation of 1861 had left many with insufficient land, and by 1917, expectations for reform were high.
The Provisional Government’s refusal to redistribute land before the Constituent Assembly met was seen as betrayal. In response, peasants:
Seized land illegally, redistributing estates among themselves.
Destroyed manor houses and targeted landlords.
These actions reflected not just economic desperation but also a political rejection of the government’s legitimacy, contributing to rural unrest and revolutionary conditions.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two reasons why the Petrograd Soviet undermined the authority of the Provisional Government in 1917.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each valid reason identified.
Possible answers include:
Issued Order No. 1, instructing soldiers to obey the government only if orders did not contradict Soviet directives. (1 mark)
Controlled key infrastructure such as railways and communications, limiting government power. (1 mark)
Enjoyed greater legitimacy among workers and soldiers, weakening support for the Provisional Government. (1 mark)
Often opposed government decisions, creating conflicting policies. (1 mark)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how social conditions in Russia contributed to opposition to the Provisional Government between March and October 1917.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
General or limited explanation.
May describe social conditions without linking them to opposition.
Example: “There were food shortages and inflation.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation of how social conditions contributed to opposition, but with limited depth or range.
May refer to either urban or rural conditions, but not both in detail.
Example: “Food shortages and high prices led to discontent in the cities, causing workers to support radical parties like the Bolsheviks.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear and developed explanation linking multiple social conditions to opposition.
Covers urban and rural conditions, showing how both fuelled revolutionary sentiment.
May include reference to desertions, land seizures, and the appeal of Bolshevik promises.
Example: “Acute food shortages and spiralling inflation in urban areas eroded support for the Provisional Government, while land hunger and violent peasant land seizures in the countryside alienated rural populations. Deserting soldiers joined protests, adding to instability, and the government’s failure to solve these crises pushed many towards the Bolsheviks’ promises of ‘Peace, Land, and Bread.’”
