OCR Specification focus:
‘Roosevelt’s motives shaped initiatives for minority groups during the New Deal.’
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s motives during the New Deal (1933–1939) were driven by economic recovery, political pragmatism, and evolving social attitudes, shaping policies affecting minority groups across the United States.
Roosevelt’s Broader Aims and Context
Economic Crisis and the New Deal Framework
When Roosevelt became president in 1933, the United States was in the depths of the Great Depression, with unemployment exceeding 25% and widespread poverty. The New Deal, a series of federal programmes, reforms, and public works initiatives, aimed to:
Provide relief to the unemployed and poor.
Promote economic recovery and stabilise key industries.
Reform the financial system to prevent future crises.
Roosevelt’s overriding priority was national economic recovery. This context profoundly influenced his motives and shaped the extent to which minority groups — including African Americans, Native Americans, women, and organised labour — benefited from federal initiatives.
African Americans and Roosevelt’s Motives
Political Caution and the “Southern Bloc”
Roosevelt needed the support of Southern Democrats, many of whom were staunch segregationists, to pass his New Deal legislation through Congress. This political reality limited his willingness to challenge entrenched racial discrimination directly.
Roosevelt avoided civil rights legislation such as anti-lynching bills, fearing they would alienate Southern support.
Despite this, indirect economic relief measures, like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and Works Progress Administration (WPA), employed significant numbers of African Americans.
Shifts in Political Allegiance
Although the New Deal did not target racial inequality directly, many African Americans shifted their political support from the Republican Party (the “party of Lincoln”) to Roosevelt’s Democratic Party. This was partly due to:
The symbolic inclusion of Black leaders, such as the informal “Black Cabinet”, which advised on racial issues.
Eleanor Roosevelt’s advocacy, which publicly supported civil rights causes more strongly than the president himself.
Marian Anderson performs at the Lincoln Memorial on 9 April 1939 after being barred from a segregated venue. The concert, supported by Eleanor Roosevelt, symbolised federal visibility for African American rights within a cautious political climate. This image offers concrete context for the New Deal’s pragmatic approach to minority inclusion. Source
Motives Behind Roosevelt’s Approach
Roosevelt’s motives towards African Americans combined pragmatism and gradualism:
He prioritised national unity over divisive civil rights battles.
He aimed to integrate African Americans into mainstream economic programmes rather than introduce targeted reforms.
His approach reflected a belief that economic empowerment would lay the groundwork for future civil rights advances.
Native Americans and the Indian New Deal
Reformist Intentions and John Collier
The most direct change for a minority group under Roosevelt came through policy towards Native Americans. Appointing John Collier as Commissioner of Indian Affairs reflected a reformist motive. Collier sought to reverse the destructive policies of allotment under the Dawes Act (1887).
Commissioner John Collier meets with tribal leaders during discussions surrounding the Indian Reorganization Act (1934). The image captures the policy pivot away from allotment toward tribal self-government and cultural renewal — the core of Roosevelt’s Native American policy motives. Source
Allotment: The division of communal Native American land into individual plots, aiming to assimilate Native peoples into Euro-American agrarian culture.
The Indian Reorganization Act (1934)
Roosevelt’s administration passed the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), often called the “Indian New Deal”, motivated by a desire to:
Restore tribal self-government and cultural identity.
Halt the loss of tribal land and encourage communal landholding.
Improve education, healthcare, and infrastructure on reservations.
The IRA marked a significant shift from previous assimilationist policies, showing Roosevelt’s willingness to support minority rights when aligned with progressive reform ideals and political feasibility.
Women and New Deal Policy
Economic Necessity and Limited Social Reform
Roosevelt’s approach to women was shaped more by economic necessity than feminist ideology. The New Deal did not prioritise women’s rights, but several initiatives indirectly benefited them:
The Works Progress Administration (WPA) and Civilian Works Administration (CWA) employed women, often in clerical, educational, and domestic roles.
Frances Perkins, as Secretary of Labor, became the first female Cabinet member, reflecting Roosevelt’s openness to women in government.
Frances Perkins, U.S. Secretary of Labor, served throughout Roosevelt’s presidency and helped shape labour protections central to the New Deal. Her Cabinet appointment evidences the administration’s strategic—but measured—broadening of participation by women. Source
However, traditional gender roles largely persisted, and women’s employment opportunities remained restricted. Roosevelt’s motives reflected prevailing social norms and the belief that women’s contributions were most appropriate in supportive and domestic spheres.
Political and Social Motives
Roosevelt’s policy towards women aimed to:
Harness their potential in the workforce without disrupting traditional family structures.
Gain political support from women voters, enfranchised nationally since 1920.
Demonstrate a commitment to inclusivity within the broader New Deal coalition.
Organised Labour and Minority Workers
Strengthening Labour as an Economic Strategy
Roosevelt believed that empowering organised labour was essential for economic recovery and social stability. His motives combined economic and political considerations:
Strong unions could boost wages and consumer spending, stimulating recovery.
Labour support was crucial for sustaining the Democratic New Deal coalition.
Legislation such as the National Industrial Recovery Act (1933) and the Wagner Act (1935) strengthened collective bargaining rights. Although not minority-specific, these measures significantly aided minority workers, particularly African Americans, by improving conditions in unionised sectors.
Balancing Labour and Business Interests
Roosevelt sought to balance labour empowerment with maintaining business confidence. His motives reflected a desire to avoid radical change while institutionalising workers’ rights within a capitalist framework.
Political Pragmatism and Roosevelt’s Coalition
The “Roosevelt Coalition”
Roosevelt’s motives must also be understood in the context of the broad political coalition he sought to build. This included:
Southern Democrats, whose support required caution on civil rights.
Urban ethnic minorities, who benefited from relief programmes.
Organised labour, increasingly central to Democratic electoral success.
Balancing these interests shaped Roosevelt’s minority policies. He often prioritised incremental change and symbolic gestures over transformative legislation, reflecting his aim to preserve political unity and legislative momentum.
Pragmatism over Principle
Roosevelt’s reluctance to confront segregation and racism directly reflected his pragmatic motives. He sought achievable reforms that would not fracture his coalition, believing that sustained political power was essential to achieving any long-term change.
Evolving Motives and Legacy
Humanitarian and Progressive Influences
While political calculation dominated Roosevelt’s motives, humanitarian ideals and progressive influences — including those of Eleanor Roosevelt and key advisers — also shaped his actions. These pressures pushed the administration towards policies like the Indian Reorganization Act and the inclusion of African Americans in federal employment schemes.
Incremental Change and Foundations for Future Progress
Roosevelt’s motives were rooted in the context of the 1930s. Direct confrontation with racial and gender inequality was not politically feasible. Instead, he pursued incremental, economically focused policies that laid the groundwork for later civil rights advances, particularly under post-war administrations.
FAQ
Eleanor Roosevelt played a crucial behind-the-scenes role in shaping attitudes toward minority rights. She openly supported anti-lynching campaigns, met with African American leaders, and publicly criticised segregation, helping to legitimise civil rights activism at the federal level.
Her advocacy created political pressure for more inclusive policies and encouraged symbolic gestures, such as supporting Marian Anderson’s 1939 concert. While FDR remained cautious, Eleanor’s influence helped keep minority issues on the national agenda during the New Deal.
The “Black Cabinet” was an informal group of African American advisers who provided insight into the needs of Black communities. It included figures like Mary McLeod Bethune, who influenced policies in education and public works.
Although they lacked formal power, their presence marked a significant step in federal inclusion. They ensured that African Americans were considered in relief programmes and highlighted systemic inequalities, shaping the design and implementation of some New Deal initiatives.
Roosevelt and John Collier believed that previous assimilation policies had eroded Native identity and autonomy. Supporting cultural revival aligned with broader progressive ideals and aimed to reverse decades of cultural suppression.
The Act encouraged Native communities to re-establish tribal governments, revive traditional practices, and regain control over communal land. This cultural emphasis was intended to strengthen Native societies, improving their resilience and enabling more effective self-governance.
Roosevelt recognised women as a vital workforce resource but remained constrained by prevailing gender norms. His administration focused on roles that were socially acceptable for women, such as teaching, clerical work, and social services.
The inclusion of Frances Perkins in the Cabinet symbolised progress while avoiding radical challenges to traditional gender roles. Policies were shaped by the motive of maintaining political and social stability while still expanding women’s participation in public life.
Roosevelt relied on a broad coalition including Southern Democrats, organised labour, urban ethnic groups, and working-class voters. Each group had conflicting priorities, particularly regarding race and social change.
Appeasing Southern Democrats meant avoiding direct civil rights legislation.
Appealing to urban minorities required offering visible, if limited, benefits.
Labour reforms had to balance business interests with workers’ rights.
These competing pressures led Roosevelt to pursue incremental and broadly acceptable reforms, rather than sweeping changes, to maintain political support for his New Deal agenda.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Give two reasons why Franklin D. Roosevelt was cautious about directly addressing civil rights issues for African Americans during the New Deal.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason identified (maximum 2 marks).
Possible answers include:He needed the support of Southern Democrats, many of whom supported segregation.
He feared losing Congressional backing for his New Deal legislation.
He prioritised national economic recovery over divisive civil rights battles.
He believed economic empowerment would eventually support civil rights progress.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Roosevelt’s motives influenced federal policies towards Native Americans during the New Deal.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 6 marks for a well-developed explanation.
1–2 marks: Basic knowledge shown (e.g., mentions of the Indian Reorganization Act or John Collier) but limited explanation of motives.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of how motives shaped policy, e.g., Roosevelt aimed to reverse allotment policies and restore tribal self-government.
5–6 marks: Detailed explanation that links motives to specific policies and outcomes. For example:
Roosevelt appointed John Collier as Commissioner of Indian Affairs, reflecting a reformist motive to reverse assimilationist policies.
His desire to improve living conditions and support cultural renewal led to the Indian Reorganization Act (1934).
These policies aimed to restore communal landholding and tribal governance, showing that humanitarian and progressive motives influenced government action.
