OCR Specification focus:
‘The New Deal altered economic status and civil rights for key groups.’
The New Deal of the 1930s transformed American society by reshaping the economic status and civil rights of African Americans, women, Native Americans, and workers.
Economic Change and the New Deal
The Great Depression (1929–1933) devastated the US economy, causing mass unemployment and poverty. President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal (1933–1939) sought to revive the economy through state intervention, relief, recovery, and reform. Its programmes profoundly affected the economic circumstances and civil rights of various groups.
The Nature of the New Deal
The New Deal encompassed multiple agencies and laws collectively known as the “alphabet agencies”. These included:
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – Provided jobs in environmental projects.
Public Works Administration (PWA) and Works Progress Administration (WPA) – Built infrastructure and created employment.
Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) – Regulated farm production and prices.
National Recovery Administration (NRA) – Set standards for industry and workers.
The federal government assumed a more active role in citizens’ lives, laying foundations for the modern welfare state.
African Americans: Economic Hardship and Partial Gains
African Americans were among the hardest hit by the Depression. Unemployment rates were often two to three times higher than those for white Americans. The New Deal had mixed effects on their economic status and civil rights.
Economic Changes for African Americans
Some New Deal agencies provided jobs: Approximately 350,000 African Americans worked for the CCC.
WPA and PWA offered employment in public works, though often segregated.
African Americans benefitted from relief payments via the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA).
However, the AAA hurt many Black sharecroppers by reducing demand for labour when landlords cut production. Moreover, Southern Democrats in Congress ensured many policies preserved racial inequality.
Civil Rights Implications
The New Deal did not directly target racial discrimination, but African Americans gained political influence:
Roosevelt relied on the “Black Cabinet”, a group of African American advisers.
The New Deal coalition encouraged African Americans to shift allegiance from the Republican to the Democratic Party.
Despite these gains, segregation remained entrenched, and anti-lynching legislation was blocked in Congress.
Women: Expanding Roles and Persistent Barriers
Women’s economic status during the Depression declined as many were pushed out of jobs or paid less. However, the New Deal fostered some advances.
Economic Opportunities and Limitations
The WPA employed women in sewing rooms, nurseries, and education projects.
Women participate in a Works Projects Administration sewing class at a Farm Security Administration labour camp (Idaho, 1941). The WPA created paid workrooms where women produced clothing and textiles for relief, reflecting the New Deal’s gendered assumptions about “appropriate” work. While educational, the photograph also shows the camp setting, an extra detail beyond the syllabus focus. Source
Women gained leadership roles: Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labour, was the first woman in a US Cabinet.
Social Security Act (1935) provided pensions and benefits but often excluded occupations dominated by women (e.g. domestic service).
Traditional gender roles limited women’s opportunities, and New Deal policies often assumed the male breadwinner model.
Effects on Civil Rights
Women gained political visibility and began challenging discrimination:
Eleanor Roosevelt advocated for women’s employment and civil rights.
Women’s participation in public service expanded, laying groundwork for post-war feminist movements.
Yet, full equality remained elusive, and discrimination persisted in wages and employment opportunities.
Native Americans: Policy Reversal and Greater Autonomy
Native Americans suffered severe poverty during the Depression. The New Deal marked a turning point in federal policy towards them.
Economic Reforms: The Indian New Deal
The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934, part of the New Deal, reversed assimilationist policies:
Restored tribal ownership of lands and halted allotment.
Provided funds for economic development, education, and healthcare.
Encouraged tribal self-government through elected councils.
These measures improved economic conditions and fostered cultural revival, though not all tribes accepted the IRA, fearing federal control.
Civil Rights Implications
Recognition of tribal sovereignty strengthened Native Americans’ political and cultural rights.
Education and healthcare initiatives enhanced access to services.
However, poverty and discrimination persisted, and federal funding was limited.
The New Deal marked a shift towards pluralism and greater respect for Native identity, though it fell short of full equality.
Workers and Trade Unions: Strengthening Economic Position and Rights
The New Deal transformed labour relations and the position of workers, many of whom had suffered unemployment and wage cuts during the Depression.
Economic Improvements for Workers
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA, 1933) sought to improve wages and working conditions.
Wagner Act (1935) guaranteed the right to join trade unions and engage in collective bargaining.
Sit-down strikers guard an entrance to Fisher Body Plant No. 3, Flint, Michigan (1937). The action forced General Motors to recognise the UAW, exemplifying how New Deal labour protections empowered collective bargaining. The photograph foregrounds the strike’s workplace context rather than legislative text, an extension that helps visualise workers’ leverage. Source
Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) established a federal minimum wage, maximum hours, and restrictions on child labour.
These reforms empowered workers, improved living standards, and reduced exploitation.
Expansion of Trade Unions
Union membership rose dramatically, from 3 million in 1933 to over 8 million by 1940.
The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) emerged to represent unskilled workers, including African Americans and immigrants.
This expansion gave workers more leverage and a stronger voice in shaping industrial policies.
Civil Rights Dimensions for Labour
Legal recognition of unions enhanced workers’ collective rights and political power.
However, racial discrimination persisted within many unions, limiting benefits for African Americans.
Women often remained excluded from male-dominated unions.
The labour movement became a key force for broader social change, though full equality was not achieved.
Wider Civil Rights Context and Legacy
The New Deal did not explicitly pursue civil rights reform, and many of its agencies tolerated segregation and discrimination. Yet, by improving the economic status of marginalised groups, it laid foundations for future civil rights progress.
African Americans gained political influence and a foothold in federal employment.
Women achieved greater visibility in government and employment.
Native Americans reclaimed elements of sovereignty and cultural autonomy.
Workers secured legal recognition and economic security.
The expansion of federal responsibility created expectations of government action to protect rights and welfare, setting the stage for the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.
The New Deal’s mixed legacy reflects its context: shaped by political compromise and economic urgency, it offered significant but incomplete advances in both economic status and civil rights for America’s diverse population.
FAQ
Southern Democrats, who held significant power in Congress, shaped New Deal legislation to protect segregation and white supremacy. They blocked anti-lynching bills and ensured many relief programmes were administered locally, allowing discrimination in distribution.
They also influenced employment policies, ensuring African Americans were often given the lowest-paid jobs or excluded from benefits. Their influence meant Roosevelt avoided civil rights confrontation to keep political support for his wider New Deal agenda.
Eleanor Roosevelt was a vocal advocate for racial equality and women’s rights within the New Deal.
She publicly supported anti-lynching campaigns and encouraged her husband to consider civil rights issues.
She visited African American communities and Native American reservations, raising awareness of inequalities.
Eleanor backed women’s employment initiatives and supported labour rights, pushing for more inclusive policies.
Although she lacked formal power, her activism helped bring minority rights into public and political discussion.
The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) reduced overproduction by paying landowners to limit crops, but this often harmed tenant farmers and sharecroppers.
Many African American and Mexican American workers were evicted when landlords cut production or mechanised farms.
These groups were often excluded from benefits due to local discrimination and because agricultural labour was exempt from the Social Security Act.
Some New Deal programmes, like the Farm Security Administration (FSA), offered support, but they reached only a fraction of those in need.
This meant agricultural workers often saw limited gains and continued to face severe economic insecurity.
The Indian Reorganization Act (1934) laid the groundwork for long-term shifts in federal-tribal relations.
It established the principle of tribal self-government, influencing later policies on sovereignty and self-determination.
It encouraged cultural revival and language preservation, shaping mid-20th-century educational reforms.
Although funding was limited, it created a legal framework for tribes to regain land and manage resources.
Later policies, such as those of the 1970s “Red Power” era, built on these foundations, showing the IRA’s enduring legacy.
The Wagner Act and Fair Labor Standards Act created legal protections that strengthened union power and reshaped labour relations.
Union membership surged, giving workers greater bargaining power and political influence.
The precedent of federal protection encouraged further labour rights legislation in the 1940s and beyond.
It helped establish the idea that government had a responsibility to regulate working conditions and support collective bargaining.
While union strength fluctuated in later decades, the New Deal permanently altered the legal and political landscape for labour rights in the United States.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two ways in which the New Deal improved the economic status of workers in the United States.
Mark Scheme (2 marks total)
Award 1 mark for each correct improvement identified.
Possible answers include:
Introduction of the Wagner Act (1935) guaranteeing the right to join trade unions. (1 mark)
Establishment of a federal minimum wage and maximum hours under the Fair Labor Standards Act (1938). (1 mark)
Provision of jobs through public works programmes such as the WPA and PWA. (1 mark)
Greater collective bargaining power for workers due to union expansion. (1 mark)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the New Deal affected the civil rights and economic status of African Americans.
Mark Scheme (6 marks total)
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Simple statements or generalised points with little development.
May mention one or two effects without detail.
Example: “The New Deal gave African Americans jobs. Segregation continued.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation of how the New Deal influenced economic status and civil rights.
Shows awareness of both economic and social impacts but may lack balance or detail.
Example: “Agencies like the WPA and CCC provided jobs for African Americans, though they were often segregated. Roosevelt used a ‘Black Cabinet’ of advisers.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Developed and balanced explanation covering both economic status and civil rights.
Clear reference to specific policies or outcomes.
Example: “The New Deal created jobs for African Americans through agencies such as the CCC and WPA, though discrimination and segregation remained widespread. Relief payments helped ease poverty, and Roosevelt’s reliance on a ‘Black Cabinet’ gave African Americans more political influence. However, Southern Democrats blocked anti-lynching laws, showing that civil rights progress was limited.”
