OCR Specification focus:
‘South Africa, India and Sudan illustrate different contexts and outcomes.’
Opposition to British imperial rule varied across the empire. In South Africa, India and Sudan, resistance reflected different political, social and religious contexts, producing distinct outcomes.
Opposition to British Rule: Regional Examples – South Africa, India and Sudan
South Africa: Resistance, Segregation and the Rise of Nationalism
South Africa’s experience of opposition to British rule was shaped by settler colonialism, racial divisions and complex political dynamics.
Early Resistance and Boer Opposition
The Boer Republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, established by Dutch settlers (Boers), fiercely resisted British attempts at annexation.
The First Boer War (1880–1881) saw Boer victory and British recognition of Transvaal self-government.
The Second Boer War (1899–1902) was more extensive and brutal, involving scorched earth policies and concentration camps.
Map showing the Second Boer War theatre (1899–1902) with major towns, railways and relief, plus an inset of South Africa. It illustrates key geographical features that influenced British campaigns and Boer resistance. Source
Boer: A descendant of Dutch settlers in South Africa, many of whom resisted British rule and expansion.
Despite British victory, the wars entrenched Afrikaner nationalism and sowed resentment that shaped future opposition.
African Resistance and Segregation
African resistance was often localised and violently suppressed due to the power imbalance and racial hierarchies entrenched by colonial rule.
The Bambatha Rebellion (1906), led by Zulu chiefs against new taxes, was crushed, illustrating the challenges African resistance faced.
British and settler policies increasingly institutionalised racial segregation, laying the groundwork for apartheid in the 20th century.
Rise of Political Nationalism
By the early 20th century, resistance evolved into organised political movements:
The South African Native National Congress (SANNC), founded in 1912 (later the African National Congress, ANC), sought to challenge racial discrimination through petitions and appeals.
Although initially moderate, the SANNC marked the beginning of modern African nationalism in South Africa.
India: Nationalism and Mass Movements against British Rule
India witnessed perhaps the most sustained and diverse opposition to British rule, ranging from armed rebellion to mass non-violent protest.
Early Resistance and the Rebellion of 1857
The Indian Rebellion of 1857, though earlier than this period, profoundly influenced later opposition by demonstrating both the potential and limitations of armed revolt.
Indian National Congress (INC): A political organisation founded in 1885 to represent Indian interests and ultimately lead the struggle for independence.
The failure of the rebellion led to the end of East India Company rule and the beginning of the British Raj (1858), prompting new strategies of opposition.
Rise of Organised Nationalism
The INC, initially composed of Western-educated Indian elites, petitioned for reform within the colonial system.
The Partition of Bengal (1905), perceived as a divide-and-rule tactic, galvanised nationalist sentiment and sparked Swadeshi (self-reliance) campaigns.
Gandhi and Mass Non-Violent Resistance
The leadership of Mahatma Gandhi transformed the nationalist movement:
Gandhi’s philosophy of satyagraha (truth-force) promoted non-violent resistance and civil disobedience.
Key campaigns included:
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): boycotts of British institutions.
Salt March (1930): symbolic defiance of British salt laws.
Mahatma Gandhi at Dandi, South Gujarat, picking salt on 5 April 1930. This moment marked the culmination of the Salt March and symbolised non-violent resistance to British salt monopoly laws. Source
Quit India Movement (1942): a mass call for immediate independence.
These movements mobilised millions across social classes and regions, demonstrating the power of peaceful protest.
Outcomes and Legacy
Indian nationalism forced Britain to reconsider its imperial position. The cumulative pressure, combined with World War II and shifting global opinion, led to independence in 1947 and the partition of India and Pakistan.
Sudan: Mahdist Revolt and Continued Resistance
Sudan’s opposition to British rule reflected a different context, shaped by religion, imperial rivalry and indirect rule.
Mahdist Revolt (1881–1898)
Sudanese resistance began as a religious and anti-imperial uprising under Muhammad Ahmad, who declared himself the Mahdi (the guided one).
The Mahdist state defeated Egyptian and British forces, capturing Khartoum in 1885 and killing General Charles Gordon.
British forces eventually reconquered Sudan in 1898 under Lord Kitchener at the Battle of Omdurman, re-establishing Anglo-Egyptian control.
Sketch map of the Battle of Omdurman showing Anglo-Egyptian troop deployments, Mahdist attack routes, and key terrain features. The visual illustrates why the battle decisively re-established British control over Sudan. Source
Mahdi: In Islamic belief, a messianic figure who will appear to restore justice and faith.
The Mahdist Revolt was one of the most significant and successful uprisings against British power in the 19th century, demonstrating the potency of religiously inspired resistance.
Anglo-Egyptian Condominium and Continued Resistance
Following reconquest, Sudan was ruled jointly by Britain and Egypt under a condominium (dual authority). In practice, Britain dominated governance and sought to suppress dissent.
Policies of indirect rule relied on tribal leaders, but economic exploitation and limited political rights fuelled opposition.
Nationalist sentiments grew in the early 20th century, often influenced by events in Egypt and global anti-colonial movements.
Towards Independence
Sudanese nationalism, while slower to develop than in India, gained momentum after World War II. The Sudanisation policy (training Sudanese for self-government) and rising political parties culminated in independence in 1956.
Comparative Contexts and Outcomes
Diverse Causes of Opposition
Opposition in these three regions arose from distinct circumstances:
South Africa: settler colonialism and racial hierarchy fostered both settler resistance (Boers) and African nationalism.
India: economic exploitation, cultural suppression and political exclusion fuelled a mass nationalist movement.
Sudan: religious fervour and foreign domination spurred violent resistance and later nationalist movements.
Strategies and Methods
The methods of opposition varied significantly:
Armed resistance: Boer wars, Mahdist revolt, and early Indian rebellions relied on direct confrontation.
Peaceful protest: Gandhi’s campaigns in India and early ANC petitions in South Africa exemplified non-violent resistance.
Hybrid approaches: Many movements evolved from violent to political strategies over time.
Outcomes of Resistance
The outcomes differed due to context and imperial response:
India achieved independence through sustained mass mobilisation and political negotiation.
Sudan moved from violent resistance to eventual independence within a shorter timeframe.
South Africa, despite early resistance, remained under settler-dominated rule well into the 20th century, with major change delayed until the end of apartheid in 1994.
These regional examples reveal the varied nature of opposition to British rule and the complex interplay of political, social, religious and economic forces that shaped colonial resistance across the empire.
FAQ
Religion was central to the Mahdist Revolt. Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi, a messianic figure in Islam who would restore justice and purity. His message appealed to widespread resentment against foreign domination, Egyptian misrule, and social injustice.
The revolt became both a political and spiritual movement, uniting diverse tribes under a common Islamic cause. This religious legitimacy helped the Mahdist state gain rapid support and sustain itself against better-armed Anglo-Egyptian forces until 1898.
British tactics evolved significantly during the Boer Wars. Initially reliant on traditional set-piece battles, they struggled against Boer guerrilla warfare. In response, Britain:
Implemented scorched earth policies, destroying farms and livestock to deny resources.
Established concentration camps for Boer civilians, though conditions caused widespread suffering.
Improved logistics and mobility, building railway networks and using blockhouses
These strategies, though controversial, informed later imperial campaigns by demonstrating the need to adapt to irregular warfare and control civilian populations.
The British justified partition as an administrative reform, but many Indians saw it as a divide-and-rule tactic aimed at weakening nationalist unity by splitting Hindus and Muslims.
The backlash sparked the Swadeshi movement, encouraging Indians to boycott British goods and promote domestic industries. It also radicalised parts of the Indian National Congress, pushing the movement beyond petitions toward mass mobilisation and protest. The episode demonstrated the power of public opinion and economic resistance as political tools.
British policy in South Africa was heavily influenced by settler demands. Afrikaner resistance forced Britain to negotiate compromises, as seen in the creation of the Union of South Africa (1910), which granted substantial autonomy to white settlers.
Settler dominance meant that policies prioritised European interests, entrenching racial segregation and disenfranchising Black South Africans. Britain tolerated these inequalities to maintain political stability and economic control, showing how settler pressure could shape imperial governance.
The reconquest culminated in the Fashoda Incident (1898), a near-conflict with France when both powers claimed Sudanese territory. Britain’s victory and France’s withdrawal marked a shift in imperial balance, strengthening Anglo-French relations and paving the way for the Entente Cordiale (1904).
It also reasserted Britain’s influence in the Nile Valley, securing access to Egypt and protecting routes to India. The campaign showcased Britain’s military power and highlighted the link between colonial control and global strategic interests.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two examples of opposition to British rule in South Africa before 1914.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correctly identified example (maximum 2):
First Boer War (1880–1881)
Second Boer War (1899–1902)
Bambatha Rebellion (1906)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which opposition to British rule in India differed from that in Sudan between 1880 and 1947.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each well-developed explanation, with the following guidance:
1 mark for identifying a valid difference.
1 additional mark for describing that difference with some detail.
1 further mark for explaining how or why that difference existed.
Examples of valid points include:
Nature of resistance: In India, opposition was increasingly non-violent (e.g. Gandhi’s satyagraha and Salt March), whereas in Sudan it was primarily violent (e.g. Mahdist Revolt).
Leadership and ideology: Indian resistance was led by nationalist political organisations like the Indian National Congress seeking independence, while Sudanese resistance was often religiously inspired, led by figures such as Muhammad Ahmad, the Mahdi.
Outcomes and timescales: Indian opposition culminated in independence in 1947 after sustained mass movements, while Sudan’s violent revolt was suppressed before eventual independence came in 1956 following political developments.
