OCR Specification focus:
‘Nationalism included Gandhi in India, Kenyatta in Kenya, Nkrumah and Pan-Africanism.’
The rise of nationalism within the British Empire profoundly reshaped imperial relationships. Leaders such as Gandhi, Kenyatta, and Nkrumah, alongside the broader Pan-African movement, transformed colonial resistance into coordinated struggles for independence.
Gandhi and Indian Nationalism
Background and Ideological Foundations
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869–1948) emerged as the central figure in India’s nationalist movement during the early 20th century. His political philosophy fused Indian spiritual traditions with Western liberal thought to form a distinctive doctrine of resistance.
Satyagraha: Gandhi’s principle of “truth-force” or non-violent resistance, emphasising moral persuasion and passive resistance against injustice.
Gandhi’s early experiences in South Africa shaped his belief in non-violent civil disobedience and mass mobilisation. Upon returning to India in 1915, he quickly assumed leadership of the Indian National Congress (INC), transforming it from an elite debating society into a mass political movement.
Campaigns and Strategies
Gandhi’s strategies relied on mobilising broad social groups and exposing the moral illegitimacy of British rule:
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): Encouraged Indians to boycott British goods, schools, and offices.
Salt March (1930): A 240-mile protest against the salt tax symbolised defiance of colonial authority.
Gandhi walking with followers during the 1930 Salt March from Sabarmati to Dandi. This image exemplifies satyagraha in action and the scale of mass mobilisation against British rule, directly illustrating the non-violent resistance discussed in this section. Source
Quit India Movement (1942): Launched during World War II, demanding immediate independence.
Civil Disobedience: The deliberate, public, and non-violent breaking of unjust laws to protest against authority.
Gandhi’s movements often provoked harsh British responses, including arrests and violence, but they significantly weakened imperial legitimacy and fostered a national identity that transcended religious and regional divisions.
Legacy and Impact
Though India’s independence in 1947 was accompanied by partition and violence, Gandhi’s legacy endured as a global symbol of non-violent resistance, influencing civil rights movements worldwide. His ability to connect political goals with ethical imperatives reshaped colonial resistance into a powerful moral struggle.
Jomo Kenyatta and Kenyan Nationalism
Early Life and Political Development
Jomo Kenyatta (c.1897–1978) emerged as a leading figure in Kenya’s nationalist movement. Initially educated in mission schools, Kenyatta studied in London, where he became involved in pan-African circles and articulated Kenyan grievances to British audiences.
His 1938 book "Facing Mount Kenya" defended Kikuyu culture and criticised colonial land policies, helping articulate a Kenyan national consciousness.
Political Leadership and the Mau Mau Context
Kenyatta became president of the Kenya African Union (KAU) in 1947, advocating constitutional reform and racial equality. However, growing frustration among landless Africans, particularly the Kikuyu, led to the Mau Mau rebellion (1952–60) — a violent uprising against settler dominance and colonial rule.
Although Kenyatta was accused of complicity and imprisoned from 1953 to 1961, he remained a symbol of nationalist aspirations. British authorities gradually recognised the need for political reform, paving the way for negotiated independence.
Negotiation and Independence
Upon his release, Kenyatta led Kenya to independence in 1963, becoming its first prime minister and later president. He promoted “Harambee” (“pulling together”) policies aimed at national unity and economic development.
Kenyatta’s role illustrated how nationalist leadership could combine symbolic authority, political negotiation, and mass mobilisation to end colonial rule.
Kwame Nkrumah and West African Nationalism
Rise to Prominence
Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972) became the driving force behind Ghanaian independence and a key architect of pan-African thought. Educated in the United States and Britain, he was influenced by Marxism, socialism, and black liberation ideologies.
Returning to the Gold Coast in 1947, Nkrumah became general secretary of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) but soon broke away to form the Convention People’s Party (CPP) in 1949, advocating immediate independence.
Methods and Achievements
Nkrumah’s political approach centred on mass mobilisation, strikes, and “Positive Action” campaigns — combining civil disobedience with political organisation. His arrest in 1950 only increased his popularity, and by 1951 the CPP had won a landslide election victory.
Ghana achieved independence in 1957, becoming the first sub-Saharan African colony to do so.
Nkrumah’s Legacy
Despite authoritarian tendencies and his overthrow in 1966, Nkrumah’s vision of African self-determination and continental solidarity influenced nationalist movements across Africa and inspired a generation of post-colonial leaders.
Pan-Africanism and Global Anti-Colonialism
Origins and Core Principles
Pan-Africanism was a transnational movement advocating political, cultural, and economic unity among people of African descent. Emerging in the late 19th century, it gained momentum through diaspora intellectuals like W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey.
Pan-Africanism: A political and cultural movement seeking solidarity among people of African descent and the unification and liberation of African nations from colonial rule.
The movement provided ideological coherence and international support for nationalist struggles within the British Empire and beyond.
Key Developments and Conferences
Pan-Africanism was institutionalised through a series of congresses, notably:
Pan-African Congresses (1900–1945): Brought together activists and intellectuals to demand racial equality and colonial self-government.
Manchester Congress (1945): Marked a turning point, with future leaders like Nkrumah and Kenyatta calling for immediate independence and linking anti-colonialism with global liberation struggles.
These congresses fostered networks that transcended colonial boundaries, shaping strategies and ideologies of African nationalist movements.
Influence on Decolonisation
Pan-Africanism informed nationalist ideologies by:
Encouraging solidarity among colonised peoples.
Linking racial liberation with political independence.
Providing a continental framework for post-colonial cooperation, leading to the establishment of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963.
Map showing member states of the Organisation of African Unity (1963–2002). This reinforces how Pan-Africanism translated into institutional collaboration among newly independent states. The image includes the full OAU membership, slightly broader than the syllabus, but this helps illustrate its continental scale. Source
Interconnections and Comparative Perspectives
While Gandhi, Kenyatta, and Nkrumah operated in distinct colonial contexts, their struggles shared important commonalities:
Mass mobilisation of previously marginalised populations.
Use of non-violent and violent strategies according to local conditions.
Efforts to forge national identities transcending ethnic and regional divisions.
Engagement with transnational ideologies, including Pan-Africanism and anti-imperialism.
Their leadership illustrates the diversity of nationalist strategies — from Gandhi’s moral resistance to Nkrumah’s radical modernisation — yet all contributed to the dismantling of British imperial authority and the creation of independent nation-states.
FAQ
Gandhi’s approach to nationalism was deeply influenced by Hindu, Jain, and Christian teachings, particularly the principles of ahimsa (non-violence) and truth.
He viewed political struggle as a moral endeavour and believed that resisting injustice without violence would transform both the oppressor and the oppressed. His emphasis on spiritual discipline, simplicity, and self-reliance underpinned campaigns like the spinning of khadi cloth, linking daily life to the broader struggle for independence. Gandhi’s fusion of religion and politics gave the nationalist movement a moral legitimacy that resonated across class and caste lines.
Women were integral to Gandhi’s mass mobilisation efforts, particularly in civil disobedience campaigns. They:
Led boycotts of British goods and promoted swadeshi (home-produced goods).
Participated in marches and protests, such as during the Salt Satyagraha, where figures like Sarojini Naidu emerged as leaders.
Helped spread nationalist ideas through community networks and local organisations.
Gandhi believed women’s participation embodied non-violence and moral strength, challenging British stereotypes and demonstrating that the independence struggle was a society-wide movement, not just a political elite’s project.
Kenyatta’s years in Britain (1929–1946) were formative. He studied anthropology at University College London, which deepened his understanding of cultural identity and colonial dynamics.
He also engaged with pan-African activists, attending conferences and lobbying British officials to address Kenyan grievances, particularly land dispossession.
This exposure allowed him to refine his political message, balancing traditional African values with modern political ideas. It strengthened his belief in constitutional negotiation and prepared him to lead a nationalist movement that combined cultural defence, political pragmatism, and international advocacy.
Nkrumah embraced a more radical, socialist-oriented vision than many contemporaries. Influenced by Marxism and black liberation thought, he saw independence not just as political separation from Britain but as a social and economic transformation.
He championed state-led industrialisation, education, and African unity, advocating a federated continent to resist neo-colonialism.
Unlike leaders such as Kenyatta, who pursued gradual negotiation and national consolidation, Nkrumah envisioned a continental revolution, believing that only collective strength could secure long-term independence and development for Africa.
Despite its powerful ideals, Pan-Africanism struggled with several obstacles:
Diverse colonial legacies: Differences between British, French, and other colonial systems created political and linguistic divisions.
Varied nationalist priorities: Some leaders focused on national consolidation over continental unity.
Cold War pressures: Superpower rivalries often influenced alliances, complicating cooperation.
Additionally, economic disparities and border disputes undermined trust. While the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) symbolised unity, it often lacked the authority to enforce decisions. These challenges meant Pan-Africanism’s impact was more ideological and symbolic than fully institutional during the decolonisation era.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two key methods used by Gandhi in leading the Indian nationalist movement against British rule.
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correct method identified.
Possible answers include:
Use of non-violent civil disobedience (1)
Launching mass protest campaigns such as the Salt March or Quit India Movement (1)
Promotion of boycotts of British goods and institutions (1)
Advocacy of satyagraha (“truth-force”) as a guiding principle of resistance (1)
Question 2 (5 marks):
Explain how Pan-Africanism influenced nationalist movements within the British Empire during the twentieth century.
Mark Scheme:
Award marks as follows:
1–2 marks: Basic statements about Pan-Africanism, possibly describing it as a movement for unity among people of African descent, with limited explanation of its impact.
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of how Pan-Africanism inspired or strengthened nationalist movements, with examples such as Nkrumah or Kenyatta engaging in Pan-African networks, or the Manchester Congress (1945) influencing calls for independence.
5 marks: Detailed explanation linking Pan-Africanism’s ideas and networks directly to specific nationalist strategies and outcomes, such as the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) or how Pan-African solidarity strengthened anti-colonial resistance across multiple colonies.
