OCR Specification focus:
‘The First World War and the Balfour Declaration reshaped expectations and policy.’
The First World War transformed Britain’s position in the Middle East, with the 1917 Balfour Declaration reshaping Zionist and Arab expectations and redefining imperial policy in Palestine.
The First World War and British Strategy in the Middle East
Imperial Interests and the Strategic Importance of Palestine
At the outbreak of the First World War (1914–1918), Britain’s strategic interests in the Middle East intensified. The Suez Canal, vital for imperial communications and trade with India and the Far East, lay close to Ottoman-controlled Palestine. Securing Palestine was therefore crucial for:
Protecting imperial routes.
Preventing rival European powers, particularly Germany, from expanding influence.
Strengthening Britain’s post-war geopolitical position.
The Ottoman Empire, allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary, controlled Palestine.
Operational map of the Palestine front at 18:00 on 1 November 1917, twenty-four hours after the capture of Beersheba, immediately prior to the Declaration’s publication. It illustrates front lines, key towns, and movements that informed British strategic thinking about Palestine. Source
Wartime Promises and Conflicting Expectations
The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence (1915–1916)
One of Britain’s earliest wartime diplomatic moves was a series of letters exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner in Egypt, and Sharif Hussein ibn Ali of Mecca.
McMahon–Hussein Correspondence: A 1915–16 series of letters in which Britain promised Arab independence in return for an Arab revolt against Ottoman rule.
Hussein sought recognition of Arab independence over a large territory, including much of the Arab Middle East.
Britain appeared to support these ambitions, though deliberately vague wording left the status of Palestine unclear.
The resulting Arab Revolt (1916), led by Hussein and supported by British officers like T.E. Lawrence, significantly weakened Ottoman control.
This agreement fostered Arab expectations of post-war independence, shaping later resentment when Britain failed to honour these perceived promises.
The Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916)
Simultaneously, Britain and France secretly negotiated the Sykes–Picot Agreement, outlining post-war division of Ottoman territories into spheres of influence.
A clear vector map of the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, showing proposed French and British zones, Zones A/B (protectorates), and the international zone intended for Palestine. This visual clarifies how Allied planning intersected with Arab and Zionist expectations. Extra regional labels (e.g., Syria and Mesopotamia) provide context for Britain’s strategic calculus. Source
Sykes–Picot Agreement: A 1916 secret Anglo-French agreement dividing Ottoman lands into zones of British and French control.
Palestine was designated for international administration, reflecting its religious and strategic significance.
This contradicted Arab expectations from the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence and foreshadowed later tensions.
Zionist Aspirations and British Engagement
Meanwhile, the Zionist movement, advocating a national homeland for Jews in Palestine, gained momentum. Leaders such as Chaim Weizmann sought British support, emphasising:
Moral arguments rooted in historical Jewish ties to the land.
Strategic benefits of Jewish settlement under British oversight.
The potential to secure Jewish backing for the Allied cause, particularly in the United States and Russia.
By 1917, Britain saw support for Zionism as aligning with wartime objectives and post-war influence.
The Balfour Declaration, 1917
Content and Purpose
On 2 November 1917, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour issued a letter to Lord Rothschild, a prominent British Zionist, known as the Balfour Declaration.
The original text of the Balfour Declaration (2 November 1917), stating British support for “a national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine while safeguarding the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities. As a primary source, it anchors analysis of wartime diplomacy and post-war governance obligations. Source
Balfour Declaration: A British statement issued on 2 November 1917 supporting the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, while respecting existing non-Jewish communities’ rights.
The declaration stated:
Britain’s support for a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.
That "nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities".
It was intentionally ambiguous, balancing Zionist aspirations with concerns over Arab opposition and Britain’s wartime alliances.
Motivations Behind the Declaration
Several factors shaped Britain’s decision:
Strategic: A pro-British Jewish community in Palestine could secure the eastern flank of the Suez Canal.
Diplomatic: Gaining Jewish support in the United States and Russia was seen as beneficial to the war effort.
Imperial: Establishing influence in Palestine would counter French ambitions and secure a British foothold in the region.
Consequences of Wartime Policies and the Balfour Declaration
Arab Reaction and Growing Tensions
Arab leaders, who had expected independence, viewed the Balfour Declaration as a betrayal. Key consequences included:
Deepening distrust between Arab communities and the British authorities.
The emergence of Arab nationalism opposing Zionist settlement.
Early signs of conflict between Jewish and Arab populations in Palestine.
These tensions set the stage for enduring conflict over the land’s future.
Zionist Response and Expansion of Jewish Immigration
For Zionists, the declaration represented a major diplomatic victory:
It provided international legitimacy to their aims.
Jewish immigration to Palestine increased, though still limited under wartime conditions.
The World Zionist Organisation intensified lobbying for post-war political recognition.
Britain’s support galvanised Zionist activities, but also ensured Palestine’s future would be contested.
Impact on British Policy and Post-war Administration
Britain’s wartime commitments shaped its post-war position in Palestine:
In 1918, British forces captured Palestine, and it came under British military administration.
Conflicting promises—to Arabs, Zionists, and the French—made governance complex.
The League of Nations Mandate for Palestine (1922) enshrined the Balfour Declaration’s terms in international law, formalising Britain’s dual obligations to both Jewish and Arab communities.
This dual policy created administrative challenges and persistent tensions, influencing British imperial policy well into the interwar period.
Legacy of the First World War and the Balfour Declaration
Redefining Expectations
The First World War irrevocably altered the political landscape of the Middle East. Key effects included:
Shattered Arab expectations of broad independence following the Arab Revolt.
Strengthened Zionist belief in eventual statehood under British protection.
Britain’s emergence as a decisive power in the region, tasked with balancing incompatible nationalist ambitions.
Long-term Significance
The Balfour Declaration became a foundational document in the history of the Arab–Israeli conflict, its ambiguities leaving space for divergent interpretations. It reshaped:
British imperial policy, embedding Britain deeply in Middle Eastern affairs.
Zionist strategy, shifting the focus from lobbying to state-building under mandate governance.
Arab nationalism, which evolved in direct opposition to both British authority and Zionist settlement.
The interplay of wartime diplomacy, imperial ambition, and nationalist aspiration during the First World War and the issuance of the Balfour Declaration created enduring legacies that shaped Palestine’s turbulent twentieth-century history.
FAQ
Chaim Weizmann, a leading Zionist and chemist, played a crucial diplomatic role in persuading British officials to support Zionist aims. He built strong personal relationships with key figures, including Arthur Balfour, and presented Zionism as aligning with British strategic interests.
Weizmann also argued that Jewish settlement under British protection could stabilise Palestine and benefit imperial control. His advocacy linked Zionist aspirations with Britain’s wartime goals, particularly by suggesting that Jewish communities in the United States and Russia might influence those countries’ commitment to the Allied cause.
Britain viewed Palestine as strategically valuable due to its proximity to the Suez Canal and its position as a gateway to the wider Middle East.
The land’s historical association with the Jewish people added a moral dimension to the Zionist cause, making support politically appealing. Additionally, British officials believed that Jewish settlers could act as a loyal, pro-British population in a volatile region, strengthening imperial influence while serving as a buffer against rival powers and local unrest.
Reactions varied widely and influenced the Declaration’s long-term importance.
United States: Many American Jews welcomed Britain’s support, helping secure diplomatic goodwill and strengthening Allied relations.
France and Italy: These Allies formally endorsed the Declaration, reinforcing its international legitimacy.
Ottoman Empire: Opposed it, seeing it as a threat to Muslim control of the region.
Arab leaders: Felt betrayed due to conflicting promises, fuelling distrust.
This range of responses embedded the Declaration within broader diplomatic frameworks, elevating it from a British statement to a matter of global consequence.
Military developments directly influenced Britain’s political decisions. The British Egyptian Expeditionary Force achieved key victories, notably capturing Beersheba and later Jerusalem in 1917.
These successes:
Undermined Ottoman control and opened the path for post-war administration.
Strengthened Britain’s bargaining position in post-war negotiations.
Allowed policymakers to issue the Balfour Declaration with confidence that Britain would soon control the territory.
Military momentum therefore transformed British ambitions from theoretical planning to practical policy-making in Palestine.
The Declaration became a foundational principle of British rule under the League of Nations Mandate (1922). Britain was tasked with facilitating the creation of a Jewish national home while safeguarding the rights of existing Arab communities.
This dual obligation shaped policies such as land sales, immigration regulations, and political representation. However, attempts to balance these competing commitments proved difficult, leading to rising tensions, outbreaks of violence, and frequent policy shifts — all rooted in the ambiguities of the original 1917 Declaration.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two reasons why Britain issued the Balfour Declaration in 1917.
Mark scheme (2 marks total):
Award 1 mark for each valid reason identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers include:
To gain support from Jewish communities in the United States and Russia for the Allied war effort. (1)
To secure a strategic foothold in Palestine and protect the eastern flank of the Suez Canal. (1)
To counter French influence in the Middle East after the Sykes–Picot Agreement. (1)
To advance Britain’s imperial interests in the region. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the First World War reshaped expectations in Palestine among different groups.
Mark scheme (6 marks total):
Award marks for relevant knowledge, clear explanation, and linkage to expectations.
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic factual knowledge with little explanation.
Example: States that the Balfour Declaration supported a Jewish homeland or that Arabs expected independence.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of how expectations changed, with limited detail or uneven coverage.
Example: Mentions that the Arabs expected independence due to the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, but Britain also promised support for a Jewish homeland.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear and detailed explanation showing understanding of how expectations shifted for at least two groups.
Example: Explains that the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence led Arabs to expect independence, but the Sykes–Picot Agreement and Balfour Declaration contradicted these hopes, causing resentment. Also notes that Zionists expected British-backed settlement and eventual statehood after the Balfour Declaration, raising tensions between Jewish and Arab communities.
