OCR Specification focus:
‘Reasons for partition in 1948 and its immediate consequences are assessed.’
The partition of Palestine in 1948 marked the end of British mandate rule, leading to the creation of Israel and transforming Middle Eastern politics through conflict and displacement.
Partition in 1948: Reasons and Consequences
The End of the British Mandate
By the late 1940s, British control over Palestine had become untenable. The British Mandate (1920–1948), established under the League of Nations after the First World War, aimed to implement the Balfour Declaration (1917) — promising a “national home for the Jewish people” — while safeguarding the rights of existing non-Jewish communities. However, increasing Zionist immigration, growing Arab resistance, and escalating violence made governance nearly impossible. Britain, weakened by the Second World War and facing mounting international criticism, referred the issue to the United Nations (UN) in 1947, signalling its intention to withdraw.
Reasons for Partition
Zionist Nationalism and Jewish Immigration
The growth of Zionism, a political movement advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, was central to partition.
Zionism: A nationalist movement founded in the late 19th century seeking the return of the Jewish people to their ancestral homeland and the establishment of a Jewish state.
Jewish immigration increased significantly under the British Mandate, especially due to rising antisemitism and the Holocaust, which killed six million Jews.
Jewish immigrants purchased land and established settlements, strengthening their claim to self-determination.
Haganah, a Jewish paramilitary organisation, and other groups developed strong military capabilities, preparing the Yishuv (Jewish community) for statehood.
Arab Nationalism and Opposition
Arab Palestinians strongly opposed Zionist aims:
They feared displacement and loss of land, viewing Zionism as a colonial project.
Arab resistance intensified after the 1936–1939 Arab Revolt, a nationalist uprising against British rule and Jewish immigration.
By the 1940s, Palestinian leadership, including Haj Amin al-Husseini, rejected partition and insisted on a unitary Arab-majority state.
International Pressures and Holocaust Impact
The Holocaust profoundly influenced global opinion:
Sympathy for Jewish suffering generated support for a Jewish state, particularly in the United States.
President Harry Truman and others lobbied Britain to allow more Jewish refugees into Palestine.
Britain, struggling economically and militarily post-war, sought to end its costly mandate amid deteriorating domestic and imperial conditions.
British Withdrawal and UN Involvement
Britain’s decision to hand the problem to the UN in 1947 was pivotal. The UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) proposed partition as the only viable solution to competing nationalisms.
The UN Partition Plan (Resolution 181) recommended dividing Palestine into Jewish (55%) and Arab (45%) states, with Jerusalem under international administration.
Map of the United Nations Partition Plan (1947), indicating proposed Jewish and Arab states and Jerusalem under UN administration. Use it to visualise how partition attempted to reconcile competing national claims. Note: the colour scheme and coast/city labels add clarity beyond the minimum specification. Source
The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency but rejected by Arab leaders and neighbouring states, who opposed any Jewish state in Palestine.
Britain announced its withdrawal by May 1948, removing the imperial framework that had previously contained the conflict.
Immediate Consequences of Partition
The Establishment of Israel
On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the State of Israel, hours before the British Mandate ended. The new state received swift recognition from the USA and USSR, highlighting its geopolitical significance during the emerging Cold War.
The declaration marked a triumph for the Zionist project.
Israel’s provisional government was well-organised, with institutions such as the Knesset (parliament) and Israel Defense Forces (IDF) prepared to consolidate state power.
The 1948 Arab–Israeli War
The immediate aftermath was war. On 15 May 1948, armies from Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded the new state:
The conflict, known as the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949), lasted until armistice agreements in 1949.
Despite initial Arab advances, Israel’s superior organisation and armaments enabled it to expand beyond the UN partition borders, gaining approximately 78% of former Mandatory Palestine.
Side-by-side comparison map contrasting the UN Partition Plan (1947) with the 1949 Armistice Lines (“Green Line”). It highlights areas annexed to Israel and territories held by Jordan (West Bank) and Egypt (Gaza) after the war. Legend colours clearly separate the plan’s allocations from the armistice outcome. Source
Jordan annexed the West Bank, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip, leaving no Palestinian state.
The Palestinian Refugee Crisis
One of the most significant outcomes was the creation of the Palestinian refugee problem:
Approximately 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled during the conflict, an event Palestinians call the Nakba (“catastrophe”).
Refugees from Galilee (Oct–Nov 1948) travelling north towards Lebanon during the first Arab–Israeli war. The image foregrounds the scale and immediacy of displacement that created the enduring Palestinian refugee crisis. It adds lived context to the demographic outcome discussed in the syllabus. Source
Refugees settled in camps across neighbouring Arab states, where many remained stateless, fuelling long-term instability and resentment.
The unresolved refugee issue became a central point of contention in subsequent Arab–Israeli negotiations.
Regional and International Implications
The partition and creation of Israel transformed Middle Eastern geopolitics:
Arab states, humiliated by defeat, refused to recognise Israel and maintained a state of hostility.
The conflict intensified Arab nationalism and shaped the policies of leaders such as Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt.
The USA and USSR both courted allies in the region, embedding the Arab–Israeli conflict within the wider Cold War rivalry.
The British Empire’s prestige suffered further blows, as partition illustrated imperial decline and Britain’s inability to manage post-war crises.
Impact on Britain and the Empire
For Britain, partition highlighted the limits of imperial power:
The withdrawal marked a significant imperial retreat, showing that Britain could no longer sustain costly colonial commitments.
Its strategic position in the Middle East diminished, though Britain sought to retain influence through alliances and bases in neighbouring territories.
The failure to achieve a peaceful settlement damaged Britain’s international reputation and accelerated debates over imperial decolonisation elsewhere.
Legacy of Partition
The UN partition plan was never implemented as intended, but it shaped the trajectory of the conflict:
The unresolved question of Palestinian statehood continues to dominate regional politics.
The refugee crisis remains central to peace negotiations and identity politics across the Middle East.
Israel’s creation profoundly altered the political, demographic, and cultural landscape of the region, laying the foundations for decades of conflict.
FAQ
The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) was formed in 1947 to investigate conditions in Palestine and propose solutions to the escalating conflict. It visited the region, interviewed Jewish and Arab representatives, and reviewed evidence from multiple sources.
UNSCOP concluded that the Mandate system was unworkable and recommended partition as the best way to reconcile competing nationalisms. Its proposal formed the basis of UN Resolution 181, suggesting separate Jewish and Arab states and international control of Jerusalem. Although Arabs boycotted UNSCOP’s proceedings, its work shaped the diplomatic framework leading to partition.
Jerusalem held deep religious and historical significance for Jews, Christians, and Muslims, making its control highly contentious. To avoid exacerbating sectarian conflict, the UN proposed placing the city under international administration (corpus separatum).
This arrangement aimed to:
Guarantee access to holy sites for all faiths.
Prevent either state from claiming exclusive sovereignty.
Reduce a potential flashpoint for future conflict.
Although accepted by the Jewish Agency, Arab leaders rejected the plan, and the 1948 war prevented its implementation. Jerusalem was instead divided between Israeli and Jordanian control until 1967.
Arab governments and the Arab League strongly opposed the UN Partition Plan. They argued it violated the principle of self-determination, as Arabs formed the majority of Palestine’s population but were allocated less than half the territory.
Key reasons for rejection included:
Opposition to creating a Jewish state in what they saw as Arab land.
Fear of Western imperialism being perpetuated through Zionist settlement.
Concerns about destabilising their own regimes if seen as compromising on Palestine.
This rejection led Arab states to invade Israel immediately after its declaration of independence in May 1948, initiating the first Arab–Israeli war.
Plan Dalet (Plan D) was a strategic military plan devised by the Haganah in early 1948 to secure areas allocated to the Jewish state and defend against Arab attacks.
Its objectives included:
Securing roads, settlements, and strategic points.
Expelling or subduing hostile Arab forces in contested areas.
Pre-empting Arab advances before the British withdrawal.
While controversial, Plan Dalet contributed to the capture of Arab villages and towns, leading to significant population displacement. Many historians view it as a major factor in the Nakba, as fear of violence and direct expulsions caused hundreds of thousands of Palestinians to flee.
The chaotic end of the Mandate highlighted Britain’s declining global power and inability to manage nationalist conflicts after 1945. The loss of control and reputational damage accelerated debates about imperial withdrawal.
Consequences included:
Greater caution in handling nationalist movements in colonies such as Kenya and Malaya.
A shift in focus towards maintaining influence through the Commonwealth rather than direct rule.
Recognition that imperial governance was unsustainable amid Cold War pressures and growing demands for self-determination.
Palestine became a case study in the risks of delaying decolonisation, shaping British strategies in later withdrawals.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Give two reasons why Britain referred the question of Palestine’s future to the United Nations in 1947.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correct reason, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers include:
Britain could no longer manage escalating violence between Jewish and Arab communities. (1 mark)
Economic and military weakness after the Second World War made continued mandate control unsustainable. (1 mark)
Growing international pressure, especially from the United States, to allow Jewish immigration after the Holocaust. (1 mark)
Britain wanted to avoid alienating Arab allies while also responding to Zionist demands. (1 mark)
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain two major immediate consequences of the 1948 partition of Palestine.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Limited knowledge shown. Identifies consequences with little explanation or detail.
e.g., “Israel was created.” (1 mark)
“Many Palestinians became refugees.” (1 mark)
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Clear explanation of two relevant consequences with supporting detail.
e.g., “The State of Israel was proclaimed on 14 May 1948, leading to international recognition by powers such as the USA and USSR.” (2 marks)
“Around 700,000 Palestinians were displaced during the war, creating a refugee crisis that shaped future Arab–Israeli relations.” (2 marks)
Level 3 (5 marks): Detailed and well-explained consequences showing clear understanding of significance and context.
e.g., “The immediate outcome was the creation of Israel on 14 May 1948, which was swiftly recognised by major powers, transforming Middle Eastern geopolitics. The ensuing Arab–Israeli War saw Israel expand beyond the UN partition borders, while around 700,000 Palestinians were displaced in the Nakba, creating a refugee crisis that became central to future conflict.” (5 marks)
