OCR Specification focus:
‘Russia and the United States shaped regional politics to 2011 through coups, allies and wars.’
From the collapse of the Ottoman Empire to the upheavals of the early 21st century, Russia and the United States profoundly influenced the Middle East, shaping its politics, conflicts and alliances.
The Russian Empire and the Early Soviet Period (1914–1945)
Imperial Ambitions and World War I
The Russian Empire sought access to warm-water ports and influence over the Straits of Constantinople. During the First World War, Russia supported the Allies against the Ottoman Empire, aiming to expand its reach into Anatolia and the Middle East. However, the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution ended imperial ambitions abruptly.
Soviet Ideology and Early Diplomacy
The new Soviet Union rejected imperialism, instead promoting anti-colonialism and revolutionary ideology. Moscow denounced Sykes–Picot and supported movements against British and French mandates. Yet Soviet influence remained limited until after the Second World War, when global bipolarity reshaped Middle Eastern politics.
United States: Entry into Middle Eastern Politics (1918–1945)
Wilsonian Ideals and Mandate Opposition
Initially, the US was reluctant to engage deeply, championing self-determination under President Woodrow Wilson. American officials opposed European mandates but lacked political will to enforce alternatives. Economic interests, particularly in oil, slowly drew the US into regional affairs.
Foundations of Strategic Interest
By the 1930s and 1940s, US companies such as Standard Oil of California secured oil concessions in Saudi Arabia, laying the foundation for a long-term strategic presence. During World War II, Washington supported the defence of oil fields and supply routes, recognising the region’s geostrategic importance.
Cold War Rivalry and Superpower Competition (1945–1991)
Containment vs. Expansion
After 1945, the Middle East became a theatre of Cold War competition. The United States sought to contain communism, while the Soviet Union aimed to expand socialist influence through alliances and support for nationalist movements.
Containment: A US foreign policy strategy aimed at preventing the spread of communism, first articulated by George Kennan in 1947.
Key Soviet Strategies
The USSR built alliances with Arab nationalist regimes, supplying arms and economic aid:
Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser received Soviet weaponry and the Aswan High Dam project.
Syria and Iraq aligned with Moscow after coups in 1963 and 1958, respectively.
The USSR backed the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and supported Arab positions in Arab–Israeli conflicts.
Soviet support also extended to military intervention:
The Afghan War (1979–1989) saw Soviet forces occupy Afghanistan to sustain a socialist government, provoking Western opposition and jihadist resistance.
US Responses and Alliances
The US countered Soviet influence through alliances, military bases and economic support:
CENTO (Baghdad Pact) members shown at a glance: Turkey, Iran, Pakistan and (originally) Iraq, with the UK as a leading sponsor. The map visualises the alliance architecture Washington backed in the region to contain the USSR. Note: the map is world-scaled and includes the UK outside the Middle East. Source
The Truman Doctrine (1947) pledged aid to resist communist expansion in Greece, Turkey, and by extension, the Middle East.
The Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) extended this principle, allowing US intervention against communist aggression.
Close alliances were forged with Israel (from 1948), Iran (under the Shah), and Saudi Arabia, combining oil interests, military cooperation, and anti-communist policy.
US-backed interventions included:
The 1953 coup in Iran (Operation Ajax), overthrowing Mohammad Mossadeq and reinstating Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
Support for conservative monarchies against Arab socialism, such as in Jordan and Saudi Arabia.
Post-Cold War Realignments and New Challenges (1991–2011)
Russian Retreat and Reassertion
The collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) reduced Russian influence dramatically. Former Soviet allies like Iraq and Syria lost significant support. Russia focused on internal restructuring but sought to reassert itself under Vladimir Putin (from 2000), maintaining ties with Syria and Iran and opposing Western dominance.
US Dominance and Strategic Shifts
With the Soviet collapse, the United States emerged as the sole superpower, reshaping Middle Eastern policy around oil security, regional stability and counterterrorism.
Key developments included:
The 1991 Gulf War: A US-led coalition expelled Iraq from Kuwait, demonstrating overwhelming American military power and establishing bases in the Gulf.
The 1990s peace process, including the Oslo Accords (1993), where Washington mediated between Israel and the PLO.
The 2003 invasion of Iraq, toppling Saddam Hussein under the pretext of weapons of mass destruction, illustrating a shift to pre-emptive interventionism.
Pre-emptive intervention: A military action taken to neutralise a perceived imminent threat before it can materialise.
The War on Terror and Shifting Dynamics
The 11 September 2001 attacks marked a turning point. The War on Terror redefined US policy:
The 2001 invasion of Afghanistan targeted al-Qaeda and the Taliban.
The 2003 Iraq War sought regime change and democracy promotion, though it destabilised the region and fuelled sectarian violence.
Russia, while opposing some US interventions, cooperated tactically in counterterrorism but criticised unilateralism and regime change policies.
Methods of Influence: Coups, Allies and Wars
Coups and Regime Change
Both superpowers used coups as instruments of influence:
US: Iran (1953), support for anti-Nasser forces.
USSR: Backing of Baathist coups in Iraq (1958) and Syria (1963).
Alliances and Client States
US client states: Israel, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Shah’s Iran.
Soviet allies: Egypt (until 1972), Syria, Iraq, South Yemen.
Client state: A country that is economically, politically or militarily subordinate to a more powerful state.
Wars and Direct Military Action
Superpowers influenced and participated in key conflicts:
Arab–Israeli Wars (1956, 1967, 1973): Proxy confrontation between US- and Soviet-backed sides.
Afghanistan (1979–1989): Soviet intervention and US support for mujahideen.
Soviet airborne troops in Wardak, 1987, with captured mujahideen, during a reconnaissance operation. The image illustrates the ground-level counter-insurgency that drained Soviet resources and prestige. Weapon details visible are incidental and not required by the syllabus. Source
Gulf Wars (1991, 2003): US-led coalitions reshaping Iraq and regional security.
Enduring Legacies to 2011
By 2011, both Russia and the United States had left deep imprints on Middle Eastern politics. The US remained the dominant military and diplomatic power, though its interventions provoked backlash and instability. Russia, though weakened after 1991, reasserted itself as a strategic player, supporting regimes opposed to Western influence. Through coups, alliances and wars, these powers shaped the region’s modern history and continued to influence its volatile politics into the era of the Arab Spring.
FAQ
Soviet backing for Arab nationalist regimes reshaped regional alignments by providing military, economic, and political support to governments opposed to Western influence.
Moscow’s arms supplies and infrastructure projects — such as the Aswan High Dam in Egypt — strengthened leaders like Nasser and enabled Arab states to challenge Israel and Western allies.
This support also helped forge pan-Arab solidarity against imperialism, but it deepened Cold War rivalries and led the US to reinforce its own alliances, intensifying the region’s bipolar divide.
Oil was central to US foreign policy because it powered Western economies and militaries during and after the Second World War.
Securing access ensured economic stability and protected allies in Europe and Asia. Partnerships with oil-rich states like Saudi Arabia allowed the US to project power and influence global markets.
Oil also served as leverage: US support for regimes often hinged on continued supply, while Soviet attempts to gain access were seen as threats to Western energy security and geopolitical dominance.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979–1989) turned into a costly quagmire, draining resources and morale.
The USSR faced fierce resistance from mujahideen fighters, many backed by US and Saudi funding through Pakistan.
Over 15,000 Soviet troops were killed, and tens of thousands wounded.
The war strained the Soviet economy and exposed weaknesses in its military strategy.
The failure undermined Soviet credibility globally, accelerated internal dissent, and contributed to the weakening of the USSR, which collapsed just two years after withdrawing in 1989.
Initially cautious, US support for Israel deepened after the 1967 Six-Day War, as Israel emerged as a powerful regional ally against Soviet-backed Arab states.
Washington provided advanced weaponry, intelligence, and economic aid, while Israel offered strategic bases, intelligence sharing, and a pro-Western foothold in the region.
This relationship strengthened after the 1973 Yom Kippur War, cementing Israel as a key client state. However, US backing complicated its relations with Arab allies and fuelled anti-American sentiment across the Middle East.
Post-Soviet Russia initially retreated from the region but began reasserting itself in the 2000s under Vladimir Putin.
Key strategies included:
Renewing arms sales and military cooperation with Syria and Iran.
Opposing Western interventions, such as the 2003 Iraq War, to position itself as a counterbalance to US dominance.
Expanding energy partnerships and investment ties with regional states.
While limited compared to Soviet-era influence, these steps restored Russia’s strategic presence and laid the groundwork for its deeper involvement after 2011.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two ways in which the United States sought to contain Soviet influence in the Middle East during the Cold War.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correct way identified, up to 2 marks.
Possible correct answers include:
Forming alliances with states such as Israel, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. (1)
Issuing the Truman Doctrine and Eisenhower Doctrine to resist communist expansion. (1)
Establishing military bases and providing economic aid to allies. (1)
Supporting coups, such as the 1953 overthrow of Mossadeq in Iran. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how both the United States and the Soviet Union used coups and alliances to influence the Middle East between 1945 and 1991.
Mark scheme:
Award marks for each relevant point of explanation, up to 6 marks.
Indicative content:
The United States supported coups to remove governments unfriendly to its interests, such as the 1953 coup in Iran which restored the Shah. (1)
The USSR supported Baathist coups in Iraq (1958) and Syria (1963) to bring pro-Soviet regimes to power. (1)
The US built alliances with states like Israel, Saudi Arabia, and the Shah’s Iran to counter communist influence. (1)
The Truman and Eisenhower Doctrines formalised US support for governments resisting Soviet expansion. (1)
The USSR allied with Arab nationalist states such as Nasser’s Egypt, Syria, and Iraq, supplying them with arms and economic support. (1)
These coups and alliances turned the region into a key arena of Cold War rivalry, shaping domestic politics and foreign alignments. (1)
Level descriptors:
1–2 marks: Limited explanation with simple statements or general points.
3–4 marks: Some explanation with relevant examples but lacking depth or balance.
5–6 marks: Clear and detailed explanation with accurate examples of both US and Soviet use of coups and alliances.
