OCR Specification focus:
‘From 1914, Great Powers intervened through the Cold War to Gulf Wars (1987, 1991, 2003).’
From the First World War to the early twenty-first century, Great Powers repeatedly intervened in the Middle East through wars, shaping political boundaries, ideologies, and regional power dynamics.
The First World War and the End of the Ottoman Empire (1914–1918)
The First World War marked a profound transformation of the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire, aligned with the Central Powers, faced defeat and subsequent dismemberment. The Great Powers — primarily Britain and France — sought to reshape the region to suit their imperial ambitions.
The Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916) divided Ottoman territories into British and French spheres of influence.
The Balfour Declaration (1917) committed Britain to supporting a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, laying groundwork for future conflict.
British forces encouraged and supported the Arab Revolt (1916–1918) against Ottoman rule, promising independence that was later compromised.
The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) formalised the breakup of Ottoman lands, leading to British and French mandates in Palestine, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. These arrangements embedded Great Power influence and set the stage for future interventions.
Great Powers intervened through the First World War in the Ottoman Middle East, with the Sinai–Palestine campaign culminating in the capture of Jerusalem (1917).
Map of the Sinai and Palestine campaign in autumn 1917 showing the Third Battle of Gaza, the Beersheba–Hebron–Jerusalem axis, and British/Empire advances under Allenby. It locates key railways, coastal axes and defensive lines that enabled the breakthrough. This level of detail aligns with OCR’s focus on Great Power warfare shaping the region. Source
The Second World War and Shifting Strategic Priorities (1939–1945)
The Second World War saw renewed Great Power involvement in the Middle East. The region’s oil resources and strategic position — especially the Suez Canal — were vital to the Allied war effort.
Britain occupied Iraq (1941) to suppress a pro-Axis coup and maintain control over oil supplies.
British and Soviet forces jointly occupied Iran (1941) to secure supply lines to the USSR and prevent German influence.
The region served as a crucial supply base, with Allied forces establishing bases in Egypt, Palestine, and the Persian Gulf.
The war accelerated nationalist movements, weakened European imperial power, and prepared the ground for the United States and Soviet Union to emerge as the new dominant powers in the Middle East during the Cold War.
The Cold War and Superpower Rivalries (1947–1991)
Early Cold War: Containment and Realignment
The post-war era saw the Middle East become a key arena of Cold War competition. The United States and Soviet Union sought allies, influenced regimes, and intervened directly and indirectly.
The Truman Doctrine (1947) pledged U.S. support against Soviet expansion, notably aiding Greece, Turkey, and later Iran.
The Baghdad Pact (1955), a Western-backed alliance, aimed to contain Soviet influence but alienated Arab nationalists.
The Soviet Union supported Arab socialist regimes such as Nasser’s Egypt and Syria’s Baathists, providing arms and political backing.
Arab–Israeli Wars and Great Power Involvement
Arab–Israeli conflicts repeatedly drew in Great Powers.
In the Suez Crisis (1956), Britain and France, alongside Israel, invaded Egypt after Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal. U.S. and Soviet pressure forced a withdrawal, demonstrating the decline of European imperial power.
During the Six-Day War (1967) and Yom Kippur War (1973), the U.S. supported Israel while the USSR armed Arab states. The 1973 war nearly escalated into superpower confrontation.
U.S. diplomacy, exemplified by Henry Kissinger’s “shuttle diplomacy”, helped broker ceasefires and realign Egypt towards the West.
The Iran–Iraq War and Superpower Calculations (1980–1988)
The Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) highlighted the continuing involvement of Great Powers in regional conflicts. Triggered by Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Iran, the war became one of the longest and bloodiest of the twentieth century.
The United States tilted towards Iraq, providing intelligence and logistical support, while simultaneously facilitating arms sales to Iran in the Iran–Contra affair.
The Soviet Union also supplied arms to Iraq, seeking to maintain influence.
Western powers reflagged Kuwaiti tankers and deployed naval forces in the Tanker War (1987–1988) to secure oil shipping routes in the Gulf.
In the 1987–1988 ‘Tanker War’, the United States reflagged and escorted Kuwaiti tankers under Operation Earnest Will to secure maritime oil routes.
Diagram of Earnest Will convoy routes through the Persian Gulf, indicating sea lanes protected by US warships during the Tanker War. It directly exemplifies Great Power maritime intervention to protect strategic resources. Note: the map includes geographic references (e.g., Sirri/Farsi) beyond the OCR minimum but remains tightly focused on the convoy routes. Source
The conflict devastated both Iran and Iraq and destabilised the Gulf region, paving the way for further confrontations.
The First Gulf War (1990–1991)
The First Gulf War, or Operation Desert Storm, marked a decisive reassertion of U.S. power in the Middle East following Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait (1990).
The United Nations condemned the invasion, and a U.S.-led coalition of over 30 nations assembled under UN Security Council Resolution 678 to liberate Kuwait.
A massive air campaign followed by a swift ground offensive expelled Iraqi forces in early 1991.
The war reaffirmed U.S. military dominance and established a long-term American presence in the Gulf, including bases in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
In 1991, a US-led coalition expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait using a 100-hour ground offensive following a sustained air campaign.
Simplified operational map of Operation Desert Storm displaying coalition ground manoeuvres and principal axes of advance into Kuwait and southern Iraq. It supports analysis of coalition warfighting methods and the role of Great Power force projection. The map’s clean symbology matches OCR’s emphasis on strategy rather than tactical minutiae. Source
Iraq was subjected to severe sanctions and weapons inspections, while Saddam Hussein remained in power, creating future tensions.
The 2003 Invasion of Iraq and the Second Gulf War
The 2003 invasion of Iraq, led by the United States and Britain, represented the most significant Western intervention since 1991. Justified on claims that Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and links to terrorism, the invasion reflected a new phase of interventionist policy after 11 September 2001.
The rapid military campaign toppled Saddam Hussein’s regime within weeks.
The occupation faced intense insurgency and sectarian violence, leading to prolonged instability.
The absence of WMDs undermined U.S. and British credibility, straining alliances and reshaping global views of Western power.
The war profoundly destabilised Iraq and the wider region, contributing to the rise of extremist groups and altering the geopolitical landscape.
Patterns of Great Power Intervention
Across the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, Great Powers pursued strategic, ideological, and economic interests in the Middle East through repeated wars and interventions:
Strategic control of key waterways like the Suez Canal and vital oil routes.
Containment of rival ideologies, from Ottoman imperialism to Soviet communism and Islamist militancy.
Securing energy supplies, with oil increasingly central to global power projection.
Influence through military bases and alliances, embedding Great Power presence across the region.
These interventions shaped borders, regimes, and conflicts, embedding external powers deeply into Middle Eastern politics and laying foundations for ongoing regional instability.
FAQ
The defeat of the Ottoman Empire created a power vacuum that Britain and France quickly filled. Through the Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916) and subsequent peace treaties, they divided much of the region into mandates, giving them direct administrative control.
This reshaping of borders laid the foundations for modern Middle Eastern states and entrenched European influence, while also sowing the seeds of future conflicts by disregarding local aspirations for independence.
Oil became a central strategic priority, particularly after the Second World War. Great Powers sought to protect supply routes and influence oil-producing states.
During the Tanker War (1987–1988), the United States escorted reflagged Kuwaiti tankers to secure energy shipments.
In 1991, coalition forces sought to prevent Saddam Hussein from controlling Kuwaiti oil reserves.
The 2003 invasion of Iraq also reflected concerns about global oil markets and strategic dominance.
Control over oil shaped both foreign policy decisions and the scale of military involvement.
The Middle East became a proxy battleground where the United States and Soviet Union competed for influence.
The USSR supplied arms and support to Egypt, Syria, and Iraq, encouraging socialist and anti-Western movements.
The United States provided military and economic aid to Israel, Iran (pre-1979), and Saudi Arabia, seeking to contain Soviet influence.
Both powers intervened diplomatically, often preventing conflicts like the Yom Kippur War (1973) from escalating into direct confrontation.
This rivalry transformed local disputes into part of a global ideological struggle.
The U.S.-led coalition’s mandate under UN Security Council Resolution 678 was limited to liberating Kuwait, not regime change.
Western leaders, including President George H. W. Bush, feared that overthrowing Saddam might destabilise Iraq and empower Iran.
Additionally, the coalition sought to maintain Arab support, which might have fractured if the war expanded beyond its UN-authorised scope. These strategic calculations left Saddam in power, contributing to ongoing tensions and setting the stage for the 2003 invasion.
Advances in technology transformed the scale and precision of intervention.
During the Gulf War (1991), coalition forces used precision-guided munitions, stealth aircraft, and satellite-guided targeting to destroy Iraqi infrastructure with minimal ground fighting.
Real-time media coverage and global satellite communications shaped public opinion and diplomatic responses.
The 2003 invasion of Iraq saw integrated air–land operations and rapid manoeuvre warfare, enabling a swift toppling of Saddam Hussein’s regime.
These innovations reflected a shift from mass mobilisation wars to high-tech, rapid-intervention strategies by Great Powers.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (3 marks)
Identify three ways in which Great Powers intervened in the Middle East between 1914 and 2003.
Mark Scheme (3 marks total)
Award 1 mark for each correct way identified, up to a maximum of 3 marks.
Accept any of the following (or similar wording):
Use of mandates following the First World War (e.g., British mandate in Palestine, French mandate in Syria and Lebanon).
Military interventions such as the Suez Crisis (1956), Operation Desert Storm (1991), or the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Support for client states and regional allies during the Cold War (e.g., U.S. support for Israel, Soviet support for Syria and Egypt).
Naval operations to secure oil routes (e.g., Operation Earnest Will, 1987–88).
Sanctions and inspections imposed on Iraq after the 1991 Gulf War.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Great Power involvement in Middle Eastern conflicts changed from the First World War to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Mark Scheme (6 marks total)
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic knowledge and generalised comments. May mention events but with little explanation of change over time.
Example: “Britain and France took control of land after the First World War and the USA invaded Iraq in 2003.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Sound knowledge with some explanation of change. Some reference to different periods but may lack detail or balance.
Example: “After the First World War, Britain and France imposed mandates, but by the Cold War the USA and USSR were competing through allies and proxy wars. By 2003, the USA directly invaded Iraq.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear, well-supported explanation of change across the period. Covers key developments and shows understanding of how intervention evolved.
Reference to imperial control (mandates and treaties) after 1918.
Shift to superpower rivalry during the Cold War, with proxy wars, military bases, and alliances.
Post-Cold War period showing direct intervention by the United States in the Gulf Wars (1991 and 2003).
Inclusion of motives such as strategic control, containment, and oil security enhances responses.
