OCR Specification focus:
‘Iraq’s trajectory from Faisal through Saddam Hussein included wars and relations with the United States.’
Iraq’s twentieth-century history reveals a complex journey from Hashemite monarchy under King Faisal I to Saddam Hussein’s authoritarian rule, shaped by wars, oil politics and shifting ties with the USA.
Faisal I and the Foundations of the Iraqi State (1921–1933)
The British Mandate and the Creation of Iraq
Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War, Britain established control over the region through a League of Nations mandate. In 1921, Britain installed Faisal I, a Hashemite prince from the Hejaz, as king of the newly created Kingdom of Iraq. This was a strategic move designed to stabilise the region and protect British imperial interests, particularly access to oil and routes to India.
Faisal I sought to forge a unified national identity in a country divided along ethnic (Arab and Kurdish) and sectarian (Sunni and Shi‘a) lines.
The 1920 Iraqi Revolt against British rule demonstrated local resentment toward foreign domination, leading Britain to adopt indirect control through the monarchy.
In 1932, Iraq achieved formal independence, joining the League of Nations, though British influence remained significant through treaties and military bases.
A locator map showing the Kingdom of Iraq (1932) within the region. Use it to anchor discussion of the Hashemite monarchy’s early borders and international status. The map is minimalist by design; it omits internal provinces to maintain clarity at A-Level. Source
Challenges of Nation-Building
Faisal faced significant obstacles in consolidating the state:
Deep sectarian divisions, with the Sunni minority dominating political life over the Shi‘a majority.
Kurdish uprisings in the north, seeking autonomy.
Pressure to modernise and centralise authority while balancing British influence.
Faisal’s death in 1933 left a fragile state structure, which his successors struggled to maintain.
Monarchy, Instability and the 1958 Revolution (1933–1958)
Successors and Political Turbulence
Faisal’s son, King Ghazi (1933–1939), pursued Arab nationalist policies and criticised British influence but died suddenly in 1939. His young son Faisal II succeeded him under the regency of Abd al-Ilah. During the Second World War, Iraq’s pro-Axis coup in 1941 under Rashid Ali al-Gaylani prompted a swift British military intervention to restore the monarchy.
Iraq joined the Baghdad Pact (1955), a Western-backed alliance aimed at containing Soviet influence during the Cold War.
Mounting opposition accused the regime of corruption, inequality and subservience to foreign powers, particularly Britain and later the United States.
The 1958 Revolution
Discontent culminated in a military coup on 14 July 1958, led by Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim, overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic.
Republic: A state in which power rests with elected representatives and a head of state rather than a monarch.
Qasim withdrew Iraq from the Baghdad Pact, strengthened ties with the Soviet Union, and pursued land reform and nationalisation policies. However, his populist stance and failure to deliver stability alienated both leftist and nationalist factions.
The Rise of the Ba‘ath Party and Saddam Hussein (1968–1979)
Ba‘athist Seizure of Power
The Ba‘ath Party, founded on Arab nationalism and socialism, seized power in a 1968 coup led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. This marked the beginning of a new era of authoritarian rule and state-led modernisation.
The regime nationalised the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1972, asserting control over oil revenues and reducing Western economic influence.
Oil wealth funded industrialisation, education, healthcare and infrastructure projects, strengthening state power.
Saddam Hussein’s Consolidation of Power
Saddam Hussein, a key Ba‘athist figure, consolidated control as president in 1979 after al-Bakr’s resignation.
Authoritarianism: A political system characterised by strong central power and limited political freedoms, often maintained by force and repression.
Saddam built a formidable security apparatus, eliminated rivals, and created a pervasive cult of personality. His regime promoted Iraqi nationalism and secularism while suppressing dissent, especially from Kurdish and Shi‘a communities.
Wars and Regional Conflict Under Saddam Hussein (1979–2003)
Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988)
Saddam launched an invasion of Iran in September 1980, fearing the spread of Islamic revolutionary ideology and seeking to assert Iraq’s regional dominance.
Map of the Iran–Iraq War frontlines, indicating key axes along the Shatt al-Arab/Khuzestan and central sectors. It helps students track the grinding, positional nature of the conflict and why casualties and costs escalated. Some place-names extend beyond Iraq (inside Iran) to properly show the theatre of operations. Source
The conflict, one of the longest of the twentieth century, resulted in:
Over 1 million casualties and significant economic damage.
Use of chemical weapons by Iraq and attacks on civilian populations.
Increased Western and Gulf Arab support for Iraq as a bulwark against revolutionary Iran.
The USA, though officially neutral, provided intelligence, economic aid and dual-use technology to Iraq during the war.
Invasion of Kuwait and the Gulf War (1990–1991)
In 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, claiming historical territorial rights and accusing Kuwait of overproducing oil and harming Iraq’s economy. This provoked a strong international response:
A US-led coalition under Operation Desert Storm expelled Iraqi forces in early 1991.
The UN imposed sanctions, and Iraq was forced to dismantle its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programmes under international supervision.
The war weakened Iraq domestically, triggering Shi‘a and Kurdish uprisings, which Saddam crushed brutally.
Confrontation with the United States and the 2003 Invasion
1990s Sanctions and Containment
Throughout the 1990s, Iraq faced severe economic sanctions and no-fly zones enforced by the USA and UK to limit Saddam’s military capabilities. These measures devastated Iraq’s civilian population while failing to remove Saddam from power.
Saddam continued to defy UN weapons inspectors, leading to repeated crises and limited US–British airstrikes, such as Operation Desert Fox (1998).
Relations with the USA remained deeply antagonistic, with Iraq portrayed as part of a destabilising “Axis of Evil” by President George W. Bush in 2002.
The 2003 Invasion and Saddam’s Fall
In March 2003, the USA and its allies invaded Iraq, citing Saddam’s alleged possession of WMDs and links to terrorism. The Ba‘athist regime collapsed swiftly:
Saddam was captured in December 2003 and executed in 2006 after trial by an Iraqi court.
The invasion dismantled the state apparatus, plunging Iraq into sectarian conflict, insurgency, and prolonged instability.
Legacy and Historical Significance
Iraq’s journey from the Hashemite monarchy under Faisal to Saddam Hussein’s authoritarian rule illustrates the region’s entanglement with imperialism, nationalism, oil politics, and Cold War geopolitics. Wars with Iran, Kuwait and the USA shaped Iraq’s modern identity and redefined its place in Middle Eastern and global politics. The country’s trajectory reveals how great power involvement and internal divisions combined to produce cycles of revolution, dictatorship and external intervention throughout the twentieth century and beyond.
FAQ
Oil was central to Iraq’s transformation after the Ba‘ath Party nationalised the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1972. Nationalisation ensured state control over revenue, which was used to fund ambitious modernisation programmes in education, healthcare, infrastructure, and military expansion.
The government created a state-led economy, reducing foreign influence and strengthening internal legitimacy. Oil income also helped Saddam consolidate power by financing patronage networks, loyalty within the security forces, and social welfare programmes. However, dependence on oil made Iraq vulnerable to global price fluctuations and limited economic diversification.
Saddam used a mix of coercion, propaganda, and strategic alliances to control Iraq’s ethnic and sectarian groups.
A powerful security apparatus (Mukhabarat) surveilled and eliminated dissent.
Repression targeted perceived threats, such as the Kurdish uprisings (e.g., Halabja 1988) and Shi‘a opposition movements.
Patronage networks distributed wealth and power to ensure loyalty, particularly among Sunni Arab elites.
State-controlled media cultivated a cult of personality, portraying Saddam as a unifying national leader.
These methods maintained authoritarian stability but deepened divisions that destabilised Iraq after 2003.
Saddam’s invasion stemmed from a combination of economic, political, and strategic motives:
Iraq faced severe debt after the Iran–Iraq War, particularly to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
He accused Kuwait of overproducing oil, lowering global prices and harming Iraq’s recovery.
Saddam claimed historical sovereignty over Kuwait, once part of the Ottoman province of Basra.
Gaining control of Kuwait’s oil reserves would significantly boost Iraq’s regional power.
Saddam also miscalculated international reaction, believing the USA would not intervene — a mistake that led directly to the Gulf War.
The overthrow of the Hashemite monarchy ended Iraq’s close alignment with Britain and the West. Abd al-Karim Qasim’s government withdrew from the Baghdad Pact, a key pro-Western alliance, and adopted a non-aligned stance during the Cold War.
Relations with the Soviet Union deepened, with military and economic assistance helping Iraq modernise and assert independence from Western influence. Qasim also supported Arab nationalist movements but maintained a cautious distance from Nasser’s Egypt. This shift marked Iraq’s transition from a Western client state to a more independent regional actor.
The removal of Saddam Hussein dismantled the Ba‘athist state apparatus, leaving a power vacuum that led to instability.
Sectarian conflict intensified as Sunni–Shi‘a divisions resurfaced.
The US occupation introduced a new democratic framework, but weak institutions and corruption hindered effective governance.
Insurgencies and extremist groups, including al-Qaeda in Iraq, emerged in the chaotic aftermath.
Kurdish autonomy increased in the north, reshaping Iraq’s territorial politics.
The invasion fundamentally altered Iraq’s political trajectory, creating a fragile state whose modern challenges stem directly from the 2003 intervention.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (3 marks)
Identify three key factors that contributed to Saddam Hussein’s consolidation of power in Iraq by 1979.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correct factor identified, up to a maximum of 3 marks.
Creation of a strong security apparatus and use of repression to eliminate rivals. (1)
Establishment of a cult of personality to legitimise his rule. (1)
Control of the Ba‘ath Party and removal of political opponents. (1)
Expansion of state power through oil revenues and nationalisation policies. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Iraq’s relations with the United States changed between the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) and the Gulf War (1990–1991).
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic knowledge shown, but limited explanation. May simply describe events without linking them to changing relations.
E.g. “The USA supported Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War but fought against Iraq in 1991.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Clear explanation of changes in relations with some supporting detail. Some understanding of causes or consequences shown.
Notes that the USA supported Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War as a counter to revolutionary Iran, providing intelligence and aid.
Explains that relations deteriorated after Saddam’s invasion of Kuwait, which the USA opposed to protect regional stability and oil supplies.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed and well-supported explanation with clear analysis of how and why relations changed. May include consequences for Iraq and the wider region.
Explains that during the Iran–Iraq War, the USA saw Iraq as a strategic ally against Iran and provided covert support despite Iraq’s use of chemical weapons.
Describes the major shift after 1990 when Saddam’s invasion of Kuwait threatened Western interests, prompting the USA to lead a coalition against Iraq in the Gulf War.
May note that this marked the beginning of a long-term hostile relationship and US involvement in Iraq’s affairs.
