OCR Specification focus:
‘Iran shifted from Pahlavi Shah (1925) to Islamic Revolution and Ayatollahs (1979).’
Between 1925 and 1979, Iran underwent a profound transformation from a Westernising monarchy under the Pahlavi dynasty to an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini, reshaping regional politics.
Reza Shah and the Foundation of the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925–1941)
Rise of Reza Shah
Following the decline of the Qajar dynasty, Reza Khan, a Cossack Brigade officer, seized power in a 1921 coup. In 1925, the Iranian parliament deposed the last Qajar ruler and crowned him Reza Shah Pahlavi, founding the Pahlavi dynasty.
Pahlavi Dynasty: The ruling dynasty of Iran from 1925 to 1979, founded by Reza Shah and marked by centralisation, modernisation, and eventual overthrow in the Islamic Revolution.
Policies of Modernisation and Centralisation
Reza Shah aimed to transform Iran into a strong, modern state:
State centralisation: Reduced tribal and clerical power, creating a national army and bureaucracy.
Modernisation: Built railways, schools, and industries, and reformed the legal system by reducing the influence of Islamic law.
Secularisation: Limited the authority of the ulema (Islamic scholars) and introduced Western dress codes, including the banning of the veil in public.
National identity: Promoted pre-Islamic Persian heritage and changed the country’s name from Persia to Iran in 1935.
These policies created a more cohesive and modern state but alienated traditional groups, particularly the clergy and tribal leaders.
Foreign Relations and Abdication
Reza Shah sought to limit foreign influence, especially British and Russian. However, his tilt towards Nazi Germany during the Second World War led to a joint Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941. Reza Shah was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
Mohammad Reza Shah and the Challenges of Rule (1941–1953)
Early Reign and Political Tensions
Mohammad Reza inherited a throne weakened by foreign occupation and internal divisions. The Majlis (parliament), religious leaders, and nationalist movements held significant power. During this period, Iran became a strategic Cold War arena for Britain, the USSR, and the USA.
Mossadeq and the Nationalisation Crisis
The most significant challenge came from Mohammad Mossadeq, a nationalist prime minister who nationalised the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in 1951, challenging British economic dominance.
Britain imposed an oil embargo and sought US support.
In 1953, a joint CIA–MI6 coup (Operation Ajax) overthrew Mossadeq and restored the Shah’s authority.
The coup deepened Iranian resentment toward Western intervention and shaped future revolutionary sentiment.
Consolidation of Power and the White Revolution (1953–1970s)
Authoritarian Modernisation
After 1953, Mohammad Reza Shah consolidated his rule with US backing:
SAVAK: Established a powerful secret police to suppress dissent.
Centralisation: Weakened the Majlis and curtailed political freedoms.
Pro-Western alignment: Strengthened ties with the USA and Britain, becoming a Cold War ally and major oil supplier.
The White Revolution (1963)
The Shah launched the White Revolution, a programme of rapid socio-economic reforms intended to modernise Iran and pre-empt revolution.
Mohammad Reza Shah greets crowds at the start of the White Revolution in 1963. The reform programme included land redistribution, literacy campaigns and expanded rights for women—measures intended to modernise Iran from above. The image captures the state-led, top-down style of Pahlavi modernisation highlighted in the notes. Source
Land reform: Redistributed land from large landlords to peasants.
Education and health: Expanded literacy campaigns and healthcare services.
Women’s rights: Granted women the vote and expanded their legal status.
Industrialisation: Encouraged foreign investment and urbanisation.
White Revolution: A series of reforms launched by Mohammad Reza Shah in 1963 aimed at modernising Iran and consolidating monarchical power through land redistribution, education, and women’s rights.
Despite successes, these reforms destabilised traditional structures, alienated the ulema, and widened the gap between rich and poor. Rapid urbanisation also created discontent among new urban classes.
Growing Opposition and Crisis (1970–1979)
Opposition Forces
By the 1970s, opposition to the Shah intensified from multiple fronts:
Clerical opposition: Led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who condemned the regime’s secularism and Westernisation.
Nationalists and leftists: Criticised autocracy and inequality.
Middle classes and bazaar merchants: Resented corruption, economic disparities, and political repression.
Khomeini, exiled in 1964 after opposing the White Revolution, continued to inspire resistance through sermons and writings distributed secretly in Iran.
Economic and Political Tensions
The oil boom of the early 1970s initially bolstered the regime, but rising inequality, inflation, and urban overcrowding fuelled unrest. The Shah’s grandiose celebrations and disregard for Islamic values alienated many.
Authoritarian rule: The one-party state (Rastakhiz Party, 1975) eliminated political pluralism.
Human rights abuses: SAVAK’s repression increased resentment.
Cultural Westernisation: Seen as an assault on Islamic identity.
The Islamic Revolution and Fall of the Shah (1978–1979)
Revolutionary Uprising
Mass protests erupted in 1978 following the killing of demonstrators in Qom. These demonstrations, initially focused on political reform, escalated into demands for the Shah’s removal.
Key phases included:
January 1978: Protests in Qom sparked by an article defaming Khomeini.
September 1978: “Black Friday” massacre in Tehran intensified revolutionary fervour.
Late 1978: Strikes paralysed the economy, including vital oil industries.
By January 1979, the Shah left Iran amid escalating unrest.
Return of Khomeini and Establishment of the Islamic Republic
Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile on 1 February 1979, greeted by millions.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini on the flight to Tehran, February 1979. His return catalysed the final phase of the revolution, leading to the collapse of the Pahlavi monarchy within days. This documentary image ties directly to the leadership transition described in the notes. Source
Within weeks, the monarchy collapsed, and revolutionary forces established the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Referendum (April 1979): Overwhelming support for an Islamic Republic.
Constitution: Combined theocratic and republican elements, placing ultimate authority in the Supreme Leader.
Purges: Former royal officials were executed or exiled, and Western influence was rejected.
Islamic Republic of Iran: A theocratic state established in 1979, combining republican institutions with ultimate authority vested in the Supreme Leader, based on Islamic principles.
Impact and Legacy
The revolution transformed Iran from a pro-Western monarchy into a Shi’a theocracy, reshaping Middle Eastern geopolitics. It challenged Western influence, inspired Islamic movements, and established Iran as a regional power independent of superpower blocs.
FAQ
The United States and Britain were pivotal in restoring and sustaining the Shah after the 1953 coup that overthrew Mossadeq. The Shah became a key Western ally during the Cold War, acting as a bulwark against Soviet influence in the Middle East.
American military and economic aid strengthened his regime, while British oil interests resumed operations in Iran through a consortium. Western powers also supported the creation and training of SAVAK, the Shah’s secret police, which repressed dissent.
This close alliance brought modernisation and weapons but also deepened resentment among Iranians, who saw the Shah as a Western puppet.
Reza Shah’s secular policies, including legal reform, Western dress codes, and reducing clerical influence, directly threatened the traditional role of the ulema.
Many clerics opposed these changes, but harsh repression and censorship limited their ability to organise resistance. Some religious schools were closed, and prominent clerics were marginalised.
Although the ulema remained politically weak during Reza Shah’s reign, their discontent simmered beneath the surface and re-emerged more forcefully under Mohammad Reza Shah, culminating in their leadership of the 1979 revolution.
Land reform aimed to break the power of large landlords by redistributing land to peasants. However, in practice, the programme often failed to deliver meaningful benefits.
Many peasants received plots too small to be viable.
Former landlords reinvested wealth in urban industry, widening class divisions.
Traditional rural structures and patron–client relationships were disrupted, alienating both landlords and peasants.
The result was widespread dissatisfaction. Instead of gaining peasant loyalty, the Shah faced growing opposition from displaced rural populations who later contributed to revolutionary movements in cities.
Earlier clerical opposition often sought to preserve traditional Islamic authority and limit state interference. Khomeini went further, advocating velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist), the idea that a senior Islamic scholar should lead the state.
This doctrine combined religious authority with political power, offering an alternative to monarchy and Western secularism. Khomeini also framed his message in anti-imperialist terms, portraying the Shah as a Western puppet.
This broader, revolutionary ideology appealed not only to devout Muslims but also to nationalists and leftists, uniting diverse opposition groups under a common goal.
The revolution transformed Iran’s foreign policy and regional role. The new Islamic Republic rejected Western alliances, expelled US advisors, and nationalised foreign assets.
Relations with the United States collapsed after the hostage crisis (1979–1981), and Iran became isolated from many Western powers.
Regionally, the revolution inspired Islamist movements and alarmed neighbouring monarchies, particularly Saudi Arabia. It also intensified sectarian tensions, contributing to the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) as Saddam Hussein sought to contain revolutionary influence.
Iran’s new leadership sought to export its revolutionary ideals, reshaping Middle Eastern politics for decades.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two key reforms introduced during the White Revolution of 1963 in Iran.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct reform identified (maximum 2 marks).
Accept any two of the following:
Land redistribution from landlords to peasants
Expansion of literacy campaigns and education programmes
Improved healthcare services
Granting women the right to vote and expanding their legal status
Encouragement of foreign investment and industrialisation
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how opposition to Mohammad Reza Shah grew in the 1970s and contributed to the outbreak of the Islamic Revolution in 1979.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 6 marks for a developed explanation.
Answers should show understanding of both the growth of opposition and how this led to revolution.
Indicative content may include:
Clerical opposition (1–2 marks):
Led by Ayatollah Khomeini, criticising secularism, Westernisation and the Shah’s reforms.
Khomeini’s writings and sermons spread widely, inspiring resistance even in exile.
Political and social opposition (1–2 marks):
Nationalists, leftists, and bazaar merchants criticised autocracy, corruption, and inequality.
Widespread resentment of SAVAK repression and the one-party Rastakhiz state.
Economic and cultural discontent (1–2 marks):
Oil boom wealth distribution increased inequality and inflation.
Rapid urbanisation and cultural Westernisation alienated traditional society.
Escalation to revolution (1–2 marks):
Protests intensified after events like Black Friday (1978).
Strikes, mass demonstrations, and public support for Khomeini undermined the regime, leading to the Shah’s departure and the establishment of the Islamic Republic.
Top-level responses (5–6 marks) will include well-developed links between causes and outcomes and use specific examples to show how opposition directly contributed to the revolution.
