OCR Specification focus:
‘Red Guards’ activities declined; demobilisation came in 1969; Lin Biao died in 1971.’
Between 1966 and 1971, China experienced intense political and social upheaval. The decline of the Red Guards, the demobilisation of radical youth, and the death of Lin Biao marked a critical transition in the Cultural Revolution and reshaped Maoist China’s political landscape.
The Rise and Role of the Red Guards
Revolutionary Youth and Ideological Zeal
The Red Guards were radical youth groups mobilised by Mao Zedong during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) to attack perceived enemies of socialism and safeguard the purity of communist ideology.
Red Guards: Mass student-based paramilitary groups encouraged by Mao Zedong to challenge authority, attack revisionism, and enforce revolutionary purity during the early Cultural Revolution.
They emerged in 1966 amid Mao’s fears that the Communist Party was drifting towards revisionism and betraying the ideals of the revolution. By unleashing China’s youth against traditional authority, Mao sought to reinvigorate revolutionary fervour and reassert his ideological dominance.
Red Guards targeted intellectuals, party officials, and anyone deemed “bourgeois.”
They destroyed temples, burned books, and attacked “Four Olds”: old customs, culture, habits, and ideas.
Violence spread across China, paralysing schools, universities, and government institutions.
Red Guard factions wore distinctive red armbands and brandished the ‘Little Red Book’ at mass rallies.
Three young Red Guards pose with armbands and Mao’s writings, emblematic of Cultural Revolution mobilisation. The composition foregrounds youthful activism and textual authority. As a textbook cover scan, it reflects contemporary propaganda style while remaining visually clear. Source
Decline of the Red Guards’ Influence (1968–1969)
Escalating Chaos and Mao’s Response
By 1968, the Red Guards’ unchecked violence spiralled beyond control. Factional fighting broke out among rival groups, undermining social stability and even threatening the Communist Party itself. Mao, who had initially supported their radicalism, became increasingly concerned that their activities were disrupting state authority and jeopardising China’s governance.
Key reasons for the decline:
Factional splits: Competing Red Guard groups turned against each other, leading to armed conflict.
Military intervention: Mao ordered the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to restore order and reassert control.
Criticism from Party leadership: Even loyal radicals like Zhou Enlai recognised the need to curb chaos.
1969 Demobilisation and Rustication Campaign
The turning point came in 1969, when Mao sanctioned the demobilisation of the Red Guards. Millions of urban youths were forcibly sent to the countryside in a movement known as the “Up to the Mountains and Down to the Countryside” campaign.
Rustication Campaign: A government policy of relocating urban youths, including former Red Guards, to rural areas for “re-education” through manual labour and contact with peasant life.
Objectives of demobilisation included:
Reducing urban unrest and factional violence.
Reasserting Party and military control over society.
Redirecting youthful energy into productive labour and ideological “re-education.”
Effects of demobilisation:
Schools and universities gradually reopened, albeit under ideological control.
The PLA and Central Cultural Revolution Group (CCRG) consolidated power.
The revolutionary movement shifted from mass mobilisation to state-guided campaigns.
The Rise of Lin Biao and the Army’s Influence
Lin Biao’s Ascendancy
As Mao curtailed the Red Guards, the PLA emerged as the principal instrument of control. At the centre of this shift stood Lin Biao, Mao’s close ally and Minister of Defence, who played a pivotal role in militarising the Cultural Revolution.
Lin Biao: A senior Chinese military commander and Mao’s designated successor (1969) who consolidated the army’s political power during the Cultural Revolution and was instrumental in promoting Mao’s cult of personality.
Lin was instrumental in:
Disseminating Mao’s “Little Red Book” across China.
Embedding Maoist ideology within the military.
Strengthening the PLA’s authority in civilian administration.
By 1969, Lin had been officially named Mao’s successor in the revised Communist Party Constitution, underscoring his rising power.
Growing Tensions: Mao and Lin Biao
Ideological and Strategic Differences
Despite their alliance, tensions grew between Mao and Lin after 1969. Mao, wary of Lin’s influence over the army and his ambitions, began distancing himself from his once-trusted ally. Several factors deepened their rift:
Lin’s rigid ideological stance contrasted with Mao’s shifting political strategies.
Mao feared Lin’s control over the PLA posed a threat to his leadership.
Disagreements arose over China’s foreign policy, particularly the move towards rapprochement with the United States.
The Alleged 1971 Coup Plot
The growing mistrust culminated in 1971 with an alleged coup plot known as Project 571, supposedly orchestrated by Lin and his associates to overthrow Mao. Although the true extent of the plot remains contested, it led to a dramatic downfall.
Lin Biao’s Death and Its Consequences (1971)
The Mysterious Plane Crash
In September 1971, Lin Biao died in a plane crash in Mongolia while apparently fleeing China after the failed coup attempt. The official narrative portrayed Lin as a traitor who had betrayed Mao and the revolution.
Mao Zedong (left) and Lin Biao (right) ride together during the 1967 May Day parade, capturing Lin as Mao’s elevated protégé before his downfall in 1971. Although the photo predates his death, it precisely identifies Lin and clarifies his stature at the time. High resolution allows students to distinguish both figures. Source
Lin’s sudden death shocked China and the Communist Party.
State propaganda denounced him as a “counter-revolutionary,” rewriting his legacy.
Many former associates were purged or demoted.
Political and Social Repercussions
Lin’s death marked a decisive turning point in the Cultural Revolution:
Mao’s distrust of the Party intensified, leading to further purges and political instability.
The PLA’s political role was curtailed as Mao sought to prevent another power challenge.
Public faith in the revolutionary movement suffered, as the betrayal of a once-revered hero deepened disillusionment.
Lin’s fall also weakened the ideological fervour of the Cultural Revolution, shifting the movement towards consolidation rather than radical mobilisation.
Legacy and Historical Significance
The period between 1969 and 1971 marked the end of the Cultural Revolution’s most radical phase. The demobilisation of the Red Guards symbolised the state’s reassertion of control over revolutionary zeal, while Lin Biao’s dramatic rise and fall exposed the fragility of Mao’s political alliances and the volatility of revolutionary politics. Together, these events redefined the trajectory of Maoist China, paving the way for the later years of the Cultural Revolution and setting the stage for the political recalibrations that would follow Mao’s death.
FAQ
Universities and schools were central to the emergence of the Red Guards in 1966, as Mao encouraged students to attack “revisionist” educators and intellectuals. Many institutions were closed as classes were suspended for revolutionary activities, and campuses became hubs for radical mobilisation and propaganda.
By 1968–69, however, the chaos caused by Red Guard factions and the breakdown of education alarmed the leadership. Demobilisation efforts and the rustication campaign aimed to restore order, and schools were gradually reopened under stricter ideological control. Education resumed but with a strong political focus, reflecting Maoist values.
Initially, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) supported the Red Guards’ revolutionary actions, often aiding them in attacking perceived enemies and enforcing Mao’s directives.
However, as factional violence escalated and the movement spun out of control, the PLA’s role changed dramatically. From 1968, Mao authorised the army to suppress Red Guard factions, restore public order, and oversee their demobilisation. The PLA also assumed administrative roles in universities and local government, becoming the main force behind political stability and signalling a shift from mass mobilisation to state-led control.
While primarily a response to urban unrest, the campaign had broader ideological and social aims:
It was intended to “re-educate” urban youths by exposing them to peasant life and revolutionary values.
Mao believed this experience would purify their thinking and align them with the proletarian masses.
It redistributed population pressure from overcrowded cities to rural areas, aiding agricultural labour.
Despite these aims, many sent-down youths struggled with harsh rural conditions and limited opportunities. Disillusionment among this generation later influenced political discourse in the post-Mao era.
Lin Biao was instrumental in elevating Mao’s ideological authority. He promoted the Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung (the “Little Red Book”), which became mandatory reading across society and the military.
He also embedded Maoist doctrine deeply into the PLA, fostering a powerful link between the armed forces and Maoist ideology. This ideological alignment increased Lin’s influence and secured his position as Mao’s chosen successor in 1969.
However, his growing authority also fuelled Mao’s suspicion, contributing to their eventual split and Lin’s downfall.
Lin’s death coincided with a critical moment in China’s international relations, particularly as Mao was pursuing rapprochement with the United States. His removal weakened opposition to these diplomatic moves, smoothing the path for landmark events like President Nixon’s 1972 visit.
Domestically, Lin’s demise triggered intensified purges within the Communist Party and a reevaluation of succession planning. It also shook public confidence, as a revered revolutionary hero was suddenly labelled a traitor. This disillusionment contributed to waning enthusiasm for the Cultural Revolution’s radical agenda and marked a shift towards political consolidation.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two reasons why the influence of the Red Guards declined by 1969.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason identified (maximum 2 marks).
Possible answers:Factional violence between rival Red Guard groups weakened their power.
Mao ordered the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to restore order.
The government sought to reassert state authority after widespread chaos.
The movement was redirected through the rustication campaign to rural areas.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the death of Lin Biao in 1971 affected the course of the Cultural Revolution.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 2 marks for accurate factual detail about Lin Biao’s death and its circumstances.
Up to 2 marks for explaining the political consequences.
Up to 2 marks for explaining the wider social or ideological effects.
Indicative content:
Lin Biao, Mao’s designated successor, died in a plane crash in Mongolia in 1971, reportedly fleeing after an alleged coup attempt (Project 571).
His death shocked the Communist Party and the public, undermining confidence in the revolutionary leadership.
Mao became increasingly distrustful of senior officials, leading to further purges and political instability.
The PLA’s political influence was reduced as Mao sought to prevent another challenge to his power.
Public faith in the Cultural Revolution declined, weakening its ideological fervour and shifting it towards consolidation rather than radical mobilisation.
