OCR Specification focus:
‘The 1905 and 1917 Revolutions reordered power and legitimacy.’
The 1905 and 1917 Revolutions marked transformative turning points in Russian history, fundamentally reshaping governance, altering social structures, and redefining the legitimacy of power within the empire and emerging Soviet state.
The 1905 Revolution: Causes and Dynamics
Background and Causes
The 1905 Revolution emerged amid profound social, economic, and political tensions in the late Russian Empire. Key causes included:
Autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II, whose resistance to reform alienated liberals, workers, and minorities.
Rapid industrialisation, producing poor working conditions and urban unrest.
Persistent peasant grievances, particularly over land shortages and redemption payments.
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), which humiliated Russia militarily and eroded faith in the regime.
The catalyst: Bloody Sunday (22 January 1905), when peaceful demonstrators led by Father Gapon were shot by troops, shattering popular trust in the Tsar.
A painting depicting the Bloody Sunday shootings in St Petersburg in 1905. This powerful visualisation of state violence captures the rupture between peaceful petitioners and the autocratic regime, highlighting the erosion of Tsarist legitimacy. As an artwork, it includes interpretive elements in addition to historical content. Source
Bloody Sunday: The massacre of unarmed demonstrators in St Petersburg demanding reforms, which sparked widespread revolutionary activity in 1905.
Course of the Revolution
The revolution unfolded as a series of spontaneous and diverse uprisings across the empire:
Strikes and soviets: Workers organised mass strikes and formed soviets (workers’ councils), notably the St Petersburg Soviet, which coordinated revolutionary activity.
Peasant uprisings: Rural unrest targeted landlords and state property, highlighting agrarian discontent.
Mutinies: The Potemkin mutiny symbolised disillusionment within the armed forces.
National minorities demanded autonomy, intensifying instability across the empire.
Government Response and Outcome
Nicholas II initially relied on repression but later issued the October Manifesto (1905) to divide opposition:
It promised civil liberties and the creation of an elected Duma (parliament).
The Fundamental Laws (1906) reaffirmed autocracy, limiting Duma power and ensuring Tsarist dominance.
Although the revolution failed to overthrow the monarchy, it weakened autocracy and introduced constitutional features, albeit within a system still dominated by the Tsar.
The February Revolution of 1917: Collapse of Tsarism
Causes of the February Revolution
By 1917, Russia faced a crisis far deeper than in 1905. Contributing factors included:
First World War disasters, including military defeats and economic collapse.
Severe food shortages and urban hardship due to mobilisation and inflation.
Discrediting of the monarchy, worsened by Rasputin’s influence over the royal family.
Political incompetence of Nicholas II, including his decision to assume personal command of the army in 1915, leaving government paralysed.
Events of the Revolution
Strikes and protests erupted in Petrograd in late February (March, New Style), led by workers, soldiers, and women demanding bread and peace.
The army’s defection to protesters proved decisive, undermining the regime’s coercive power.
On 2 March 1917, Nicholas II abdicated, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule.
Abdication: The formal renunciation of the throne by a monarch. In 1917, Nicholas II’s abdication ended the Russian monarchy.
Establishment of the Provisional Government
A Provisional Government, formed by liberal Duma members, assumed power and promised democratic reforms.
However, dual power emerged between this government and the Petrograd Soviet, representing workers and soldiers.
A 1917 photograph showing a session of the Petrograd Soviet. This pivotal institution shared authority with the Provisional Government, illustrating the period of “dual power” that defined the revolutionary shift in political legitimacy. Source
Continued participation in the war and failure to address land reform undermined the Provisional Government’s legitimacy.
The October Revolution of 1917: Bolshevik Seizure of Power
Ideological and Political Context
The October Revolution stemmed from escalating discontent and the radicalisation of political opposition:
The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, gained support by promising “Peace, Land, and Bread” and “All power to the Soviets.”
Lenin’s April Theses called for the overthrow of the Provisional Government and a transfer of power to the soviets.
Soviet: A council of workers’, soldiers’ or peasants’ deputies formed during revolutionary periods in Russia.
The October Coup
By October, the Provisional Government had lost control of the capital and the army.
On 25–26 October (7–8 November, New Style), the Bolsheviks seized key locations in Petrograd, including the Winter Palace, with minimal resistance.
A high-resolution photograph of the cruiser Aurora, whose blank shot signalled the Bolshevik assault on the Winter Palace. The ship remains a powerful symbol of the October Revolution and the establishment of Soviet authority. Source
The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets ratified the transfer of power to a Soviet government, headed by the Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom).
Immediate Consequences
The Bolsheviks quickly issued Decrees on Peace and Land, withdrawing from the war and redistributing land.
Opposition parties were marginalised or banned, and a Cheka (secret police) was created to suppress dissent.
The Constituent Assembly elected in 1917 was dissolved in January 1918 after it refused to endorse Bolshevik rule.
Reordering Power and Legitimacy
From Autocracy to Provisional Rule to Soviet Power
The revolutions of 1905 and 1917 transformed the political structure of Russia:
1905: Autocracy conceded limited constitutionalism but remained intact.
February 1917: Tsarism collapsed, replaced by a liberal, temporary government.
October 1917: A Marxist-Leninist one-party state began to form, rejecting liberal democracy.
Changing Sources of Legitimacy
Tsarist legitimacy had rested on divine right and tradition but eroded as the state failed to address social and economic crises.
The Provisional Government sought legitimacy through liberal-democratic principles, but its inability to solve wartime and domestic crises undermined it.
The Bolsheviks claimed legitimacy from revolutionary authority and soviet power, framing themselves as representatives of the working class and peasants.
Broader Implications
The revolutions fundamentally altered the relationship between state and society, with power shifting from monarchy to provisional democracy and finally to dictatorship of the proletariat.
The 1917 revolutions also inspired global communist movements, making Russia the centre of an ideological struggle that would define the 20th century.
Through these revolutions, power and legitimacy were repeatedly redefined, marking the transition from imperial autocracy to Soviet statehood, reshaping Russian governance and society for decades to come.
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FAQ
The Soviets, especially the Petrograd Soviet, acted as a powerful rival to the Provisional Government. They controlled key sectors like the army, railways, and communications, limiting the government’s ability to govern effectively.
Through Order No. 1, the Petrograd Soviet asserted authority over the military, instructing soldiers to obey only orders approved by the Soviet. This undermined the government’s control over armed forces.
The Soviets also became a platform for Bolshevik propaganda, allowing revolutionary ideas to spread and reducing public support for the Provisional Government, paving the way for the October seizure of power.
Although the 1905 Revolution did not overthrow the monarchy, it exposed the vulnerability of Tsarist autocracy and set key precedents for future revolutions.
It demonstrated the effectiveness of mass strikes, soviets, and political agitation.
It revealed the regime’s reliance on both repression and concessions (e.g., October Manifesto).
Revolutionary parties, including the Bolsheviks, learned to organise more effectively and exploit state weakness.
This experience laid the groundwork for coordinated revolutionary activity in 1917, particularly the use of soviets and mass mobilisation.
The Provisional Government believed continuing the war was necessary to maintain Russia’s international commitments and secure future diplomatic support. Leaders feared that withdrawal might result in territorial losses and weaken Russia’s position in post-war negotiations.
However, this decision was catastrophic domestically:
Continued military failures deepened public discontent and further weakened morale.
Food and fuel shortages worsened, intensifying strikes and protests.
The government appeared indifferent to popular demands, losing support from soldiers, workers, and peasants.
This miscalculation fatally undermined its legitimacy and contributed directly to the Bolsheviks’ successful October Revolution.
The Kronstadt sailors, stationed at a key naval base near Petrograd, were among the most radicalised elements of Russia’s armed forces.
They played crucial roles in both 1917 revolutions:
In February, they supported protests and mutinies against the Tsarist regime.
In October, they actively aided the Bolshevik seizure of power by controlling key routes and backing the assault on the Winter Palace.
Their involvement symbolised growing military disillusionment with traditional authority and demonstrated how revolutionary groups could win decisive military backing, tipping the balance of power.
Lenin’s April Theses sharply diverged from the moderate socialist stance dominant in early 1917.
Key differences included:
Immediate withdrawal from the First World War, rejecting coalition politics.
“All power to the Soviets” — a radical call for transferring authority directly to workers’ councils, bypassing the Provisional Government.
Rejection of parliamentary democracy and advocacy for a dictatorship of the proletariat.
These bold proposals distinguished the Bolsheviks from other socialist parties, helped them gain mass support, and provided a clear revolutionary roadmap that facilitated their rise to power in October.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two key factors that contributed to the outbreak of the February Revolution in 1917.
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for each valid factor identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers include:
Military defeats and heavy losses during the First World War. (1)
Severe food shortages and urban hardship. (1)
Discrediting of the monarchy due to Rasputin’s influence. (1)
Nicholas II’s decision to assume personal command of the army in 1915. (1)
Political incompetence and failure to implement reform. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 changed the nature of political power in Russia.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic description with limited detail or explanation.
May mention events (e.g., abdication of Nicholas II) without linking them to changes in power.
Little or no reference to both 1905 and 1917 revolutions.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Developed explanation with some detail and linkage.
Explains how the 1905 Revolution weakened autocracy but did not end it (e.g., creation of the Duma, October Manifesto).
Explains how February 1917 ended Romanov rule and led to the Provisional Government.
May mention October 1917 but with limited analysis of how power changed.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Well-developed explanation with clear, relevant detail across both revolutions.
Explains how the 1905 Revolution forced the Tsar to share power with an elected Duma, introducing constitutional elements while maintaining autocratic control.
Explains how February 1917 ended over 300 years of Tsarist rule, shifting power to the Provisional Government, though dual power with the Petrograd Soviet limited its authority.
Explains how October 1917 brought Bolshevik seizure of power and the creation of a Soviet government based on revolutionary legitimacy and one-party rule.
Makes clear links between events and changes in political power and legitimacy.
