OCR Specification focus:
‘The Cold War reshaped policy, security and resource allocation.’
The Cold War (c. 1945–1991) fundamentally transformed the Russian Empire’s successor, the USSR, shaping its policies, domestic priorities, international stance and economic strategies.
Cold War Origins and Context
The Cold War refers to the prolonged geopolitical, ideological, and strategic rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States, emerging after the Second World War. Both superpowers sought global influence, rooted in opposing political and economic systems: communism and capitalism.
Cold War: A state of sustained political and military tension between the USSR and the USA (c. 1945–1991) without direct large-scale conflict between them.
Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, wartime alliances dissolved into mutual suspicion. The USSR sought to create a buffer zone of satellite states in Eastern Europe, while the USA pursued containment — a policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism.
Soviet Policy Transformation Under Cold War Pressures
The Cold War reshaped Soviet domestic and foreign policy in profound ways.
Foreign Policy Priorities
Establishment of pro-Soviet governments in Eastern Europe (e.g. Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia), formalising the Eastern Bloc.
Creation of the Cominform (1947) to coordinate communist parties and counter the Western Marshall Plan.
Formation of the Warsaw Pact (1955) as a military alliance to rival NATO.
A colour-coded map of Europe circa 1973 showing NATO and Warsaw Pact membership. It visually demonstrates the division of Europe into opposing blocs that defined Cold War security and policy. Source
Strategic involvement in proxy conflicts, such as the Korean War (1950–1953) and later the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), reflecting competition for global influence.
Soviet foreign policy became increasingly driven by the need to project power and defend socialism globally. Ideological confrontation was waged through diplomacy, aid, espionage, propaganda, and indirect military engagements rather than direct warfare.
Domestic Policy Adjustments
The Cold War intensified the USSR’s focus on internal cohesion and ideological purity. Policies under leaders such as Stalin, Khrushchev and Brezhnev reflected shifting approaches to Cold War demands:
Stalin (1945–1953): Continued strict centralisation and repression, intensifying ideological control through censorship and purges. The Zhdanov Doctrine reinforced cultural conformity to socialist values.
Khrushchev (1953–1964): Advocated peaceful coexistence with the West, reducing direct confrontation while still maintaining ideological competition. Foreign crises, such as the Berlin Crisis (1961), shaped his policy shifts.
Brezhnev (1964–1982): Adopted a policy of détente but simultaneously pursued military parity with the USA, maintaining a balance between diplomacy and hard power.
Security Policies and Military Priorities
Cold War pressures deeply influenced Soviet security and defence strategy. The USSR invested heavily in military expansion to counter perceived Western threats.
Nuclear Arms Race
The development and stockpiling of nuclear weapons became a cornerstone of Soviet security policy.
First Soviet atomic bomb tested in 1949, ending the US monopoly.
Continued development of thermonuclear weapons and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) escalated tensions.
The concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) — the deterrence theory that neither side would initiate nuclear war due to guaranteed reciprocal annihilation — dominated strategic thinking.
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): A strategic doctrine asserting that full-scale use of nuclear weapons by opposing sides would result in total destruction, deterring their use.
The arms race extended beyond nuclear weapons, encompassing conventional forces, space technology (notably the Space Race), and intelligence services such as the KGB.
Internal Security and Control
The Cold War justified the expansion and maintenance of extensive security apparatus within the USSR. The KGB, established in 1954, became central to surveillance, counterintelligence, and suppression of dissent.
Exterior view of the Lubyanka Building in Moscow, the historic headquarters of the KGB. Its imposing architecture symbolises the scale and centrality of Soviet internal security during the Cold War. Source
Fear of Western infiltration and ideological subversion intensified domestic monitoring.
Economic Policy and Resource Allocation
Cold War competition significantly redirected Soviet economic priorities.
Military-Industrial Complex
The demand for military superiority led to disproportionate investment in the military-industrial complex.
Massive state funding supported weapons research, missile production, and nuclear facilities.
The emphasis on heavy industry diverted resources from consumer goods, contributing to shortages and economic inefficiencies.
Space Race and Technological Development
Competition extended into technological arenas, symbolised by the Space Race.
Launch of Sputnik (1957) demonstrated Soviet technological prowess and propaganda value.
Photograph of Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite launched by the USSR in 1957. It marked a milestone in the Space Race and projected Soviet scientific strength. Source
Investment in scientific education and research increased, driving innovation but further straining the civilian economy.
Impact on Living Standards
Resource allocation priorities often came at the expense of consumer welfare. Housing shortages, low-quality goods, and limited agricultural investment reflected the focus on Cold War imperatives. Economic growth lagged behind Western nations, creating domestic pressures and contributing to systemic stagnation, particularly from the 1970s onwards.
Social and Ideological Effects
The Cold War shaped Soviet society through ideological indoctrination and cultural control.
Propaganda and Ideological Enforcement
The state promoted Marxism-Leninism as the superior worldview, portraying capitalism as exploitative and imperialistic. Propaganda permeated education, media, and art, reinforcing loyalty and legitimising state policies. Cultural exchanges and scientific achievements were used to demonstrate socialism’s superiority.
Education and Youth Indoctrination
The regime expanded education to produce skilled workers and scientists for Cold War competition. Schools emphasised ideological conformity, teaching the virtues of socialism and the dangers of Western influence. Organisations like the Komsomol (Communist Youth League) played a key role in shaping loyal citizens.
Nationalism and Control of Satellite States
The USSR imposed control over its satellite states, using military intervention to suppress uprisings, such as:
Hungarian Uprising (1956)
Prague Spring (1968)
The Brezhnev Doctrine asserted the USSR’s right to intervene when socialism was threatened, highlighting how Cold War security concerns justified repression within the Eastern Bloc.
Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet foreign policy asserting the right to intervene in any socialist state where socialism was deemed under threat.
This approach ensured ideological conformity but fuelled resentment and resistance in Eastern Europe.
Cold War Legacy on the USSR
The Cold War left a lasting imprint on the Soviet Union’s political, social, and economic structures. It sustained authoritarian governance, prioritised militarisation, and shaped the USSR’s global ambitions. However, the economic strain and political rigidity it entrenched also contributed to the system’s eventual stagnation and collapse by 1991.
FAQ
The Cold War drove the USSR to prioritise rapid advances in military and industrial technology beyond space exploration. Nuclear reactor development was accelerated for both weapons and civilian energy use, while radar, jet propulsion, and computing technologies were pursued to match or outpace Western capabilities.
The state also invested in cybernetics and early computing to support planning and surveillance. These priorities were closely tied to security needs, demonstrating how technological innovation became a key tool of Cold War competition.
Ideology was central to Soviet foreign policy, framing the USSR as the leader of a global socialist movement. The state promoted Marxism-Leninism internationally through:
Support for revolutionary movements in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Economic and military aid to communist regimes and parties abroad.
Establishment of organisations like Cominform to spread socialist ideas.
This ideological mission legitimised Soviet interventions and provided justification for its competition with Western capitalist powers.
Initially allies after the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship (1950), the USSR and China diverged as Cold War pressures grew. Ideological disputes over leadership of the global communist movement and policy differences — such as Khrushchev’s peaceful coexistence approach versus Mao’s revolutionary stance — created friction.
By the early 1960s, this led to the Sino-Soviet split, weakening communist unity and forcing the USSR to divert diplomatic and military resources to managing its eastern border and regional influence.
Propaganda was expanded and modernised to portray the USSR as technologically advanced, socially just, and ideologically superior.
Achievements like Sputnik and Olympic successes were heavily publicised.
Soviet media highlighted Western inequality, racial conflict, and capitalist “decadence.”
Cultural diplomacy — exhibitions, film, and educational exchanges — projected a positive image abroad.
This soft power strategy complemented military competition, aiming to win global hearts and minds in the ideological struggle.
The USSR saw the developing world as a vital arena for expanding socialism and countering Western influence.
It provided arms, training, and funding to anti-colonial movements and new governments in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Examples include support for Cuba under Fidel Castro and assistance to nationalist movements in Angola and Vietnam.
These efforts sought to expand Soviet influence, secure allies, and demonstrate socialism’s global reach, though they also strained economic resources.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two ways in which the Cold War affected Soviet domestic policy.
Mark scheme (2 marks total):
Award 1 mark for each valid point, up to 2 marks. Answers may include:
It increased state investment in the military-industrial complex. (1)
It led to the expansion of the KGB and state security apparatus. (1)
It intensified ideological control and censorship. (1)
It prioritised heavy industry and space technology over consumer goods. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Cold War influenced Soviet resource allocation and economic priorities between 1945 and 1964.
Mark scheme (6 marks total):
Award marks based on the depth and accuracy of explanation.
1–2 marks: Basic statements with limited explanation, e.g. “The USSR spent more on weapons” or “They built more missiles.”
3–4 marks: Clear explanation with some detail of how Cold War competition shaped priorities, e.g. “The USSR directed large amounts of resources to weapons and the arms race, aiming to match the USA’s nuclear capabilities.”
5–6 marks: Developed explanation with multiple, well-supported points, including examples. For example:
Massive investment in the military-industrial complex, diverting resources from consumer goods. (1–2)
Funding for nuclear weapons and ICBMs to maintain parity with the USA. (1–2)
Spending on the Space Race, including the launch of Sputnik in 1957. (1–2)
Increased emphasis on scientific education and research to support technological competition. (1–2)
Maximum 6 marks for answers showing breadth and depth with accurate historical knowledge and explanation.
