OCR Specification focus:
‘World wars strained society, nationalities and the economy.’
The First and Second World Wars profoundly shaped the political, social, and economic trajectory of Russia and the USSR, transforming governance, identity, and the state’s relationship with its people.
The First World War (1914–1918)
Background and Entry into War
Russia entered the First World War in August 1914 as part of the Triple Entente alongside Britain and France, seeking to defend Slavic interests in the Balkans and uphold its great power status. Initially greeted with patriotic fervour, the war soon exposed deep flaws in Russia’s political and economic structures.
Military Failures and Social Strain
The Russian army suffered catastrophic losses in major battles such as Tannenberg (1914) and the Masurian Lakes, revealing poor leadership, inadequate equipment, and logistical chaos. Over 1.7 million soldiers were killed, with many more wounded or captured.
The war placed immense pressure on society:
Conscription removed millions of peasants from agriculture, worsening food shortages.
Railways prioritised military transport, disrupting grain distribution and causing urban starvation.
Industrial resources diverted to the front led to falling production and inflation.
These pressures intensified public dissatisfaction with the autocratic regime, undermining its legitimacy.
Economic Breakdown
The Russian economy buckled under wartime demands. Inflation soared as the government printed money to finance the war. Industrial output fell sharply, and rural discontent grew due to requisitioning and labour shortages.
The state’s inability to manage these crises eroded confidence in Tsar Nicholas II, who assumed direct command of the army in 1915 — a disastrous decision that linked him personally to military failures.
Political Consequences and Revolution
The war’s strain on society and the economy destabilised the monarchy. Duma deputies, frustrated by government incompetence, demanded reform, but Nicholas refused. Public anger focused on the Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin, whose influence further discredited the regime.
By February 1917, mass strikes, mutinies, and food riots culminated in the February Revolution, forcing Nicholas II’s abdication and ending over 300 years of Romanov rule. The Provisional Government, formed thereafter, pledged to continue the war — a decision that proved fatal.
War and the October Revolution
Continuing the war deepened Russia’s crisis. Failed offensives like the June Offensive (1917) destroyed the Provisional Government’s credibility. Bolshevik slogans — notably “Peace, Bread, Land” — resonated with war-weary soldiers and workers. Lenin’s return and the Bolsheviks’ promise to end the conflict helped them seize power in the October Revolution.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)
To fulfil their promise of peace, the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918. Russia lost vast territories — including Ukraine, Poland, and the Baltic states — amounting to one-third of its population and agricultural land.
Map showing the territory ceded by Soviet Russia under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918). Shaded areas and dashed lines indicate frontlines before and after the armistice, clarifying the scale and geography of the losses. Labels are in French, but political boundaries and shaded cessions remain clear and directly relevant to the specification focus. Source
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: The 1918 peace treaty between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers, ending Russia’s involvement in the First World War but imposing severe territorial losses.
Despite humiliation, the treaty allowed the Bolsheviks to consolidate power and focus on the ensuing civil war (1918–1921).
The Second World War (1939–1945)
The Nazi-Soviet Pact and Initial Strategy
The USSR entered the Second World War following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939), a non-aggression treaty with Nazi Germany that included secret protocols dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. This allowed Soviet occupation of eastern Poland, the Baltic states, and Bessarabia.
However, the pact collapsed in June 1941 when Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, a massive invasion of the Soviet Union.
Map of the Eastern Front from 5 December 1941 to 5 May 1942 showing front lines and the shifting theatre after the initial Barbarossa drives. It clarifies the spatial relationship between Leningrad, Moscow and Ukraine mentioned in the notes and helps contextualise later turning points. Labels and symbology are concise and legible for OCR A-Level study. Source
The Great Patriotic War (1941–1945)
The Soviet Union’s involvement in the war, known domestically as the Great Patriotic War, was marked by colossal human and material costs. Over 27 million Soviet citizens died, and vast swathes of territory were devastated.
Key stages of the conflict included:
Operation Barbarossa (1941): Rapid German advances threatened Leningrad, Moscow, and Ukraine.
Battle of Stalingrad (1942–43): A turning point in the war, where Soviet forces encircled and defeated the German Sixth Army.
Battle of Kursk (1943): The largest tank battle in history, consolidating Soviet momentum.
Advance on Berlin (1945): Culminated in Germany’s surrender in May 1945.
Economic Mobilisation and Central Control
The war prompted immense economic restructuring under Stalin’s centralised command. The relocation of over 1,500 industrial enterprises east of the Ural Mountains safeguarded production from German attack.
Five-Year Plans’ emphasis on heavy industry facilitated rapid rearmament.
Women and youth entered the workforce, compensating for conscription losses.
Strict state planning and rationing ensured military needs were prioritised, though civilian living standards plummeted.
The economy’s transformation was essential to sustaining the Soviet war effort and eventual victory.
Social Impact and Nationalities
The war profoundly affected Soviet society. Cities endured sieges, most famously Leningrad’s 872-day blockade, which caused over a million civilian deaths.
Propaganda emphasised patriotism and sacrifice, strengthening public resolve and loyalty to the regime.
Nationalities policy shifted dramatically. While early Bolshevik policy promoted cultural autonomy, wartime suspicion led to mass deportations of ethnic groups accused of collaboration, such as Chechens, Crimean Tatars, and Volga Germans. These policies reshaped demographic patterns and deepened ethnic tensions.
Political Outcomes and Global Standing
Victory in 1945 elevated the USSR to superpower status, enabling Stalin to extend Soviet influence across Eastern Europe and establish satellite states under communist regimes. Domestically, the war reinforced Stalin’s personal authority and the power of the Communist Party, justified by its leadership during the existential struggle.
The USSR’s immense sacrifices bolstered its claim to a leading role in the post-war order, setting the stage for the Cold War rivalry with the United States.
Comparative Impact of the Wars
While both world wars strained Russia’s economy and society, their outcomes diverged sharply:
First World War: Exposed autocracy’s failures, triggered revolution, and led to regime collapse.
Second World War: Strengthened state control, enhanced Soviet power, and entrenched the USSR as a global superpower.
Both conflicts, however, transformed Russian governance, society, and its place in the world — shaping the course of its modern history.
FAQ
The First World War accelerated changes in women’s roles as millions of men were conscripted, creating labour shortages. Women entered factories, munitions plants, and transport services in unprecedented numbers, often performing heavy industrial work previously reserved for men.
Their contribution was vital to sustaining the war effort and urban supply chains, but traditional attitudes limited long-term change. After the 1917 revolutions, women gained new political and legal rights under the Bolsheviks, partly rooted in their expanded wartime roles.
The Brusilov Offensive was one of Russia’s most successful campaigns in the First World War. Launched in June 1916, it inflicted heavy losses on Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to divert troops from the Western Front.
However, the offensive was costly, with over 500,000 Russian casualties. It strained Russia’s already weakened army and economy, exposing logistical shortcomings. Despite tactical gains, it failed to achieve strategic victory and further deepened domestic discontent with the war.
Stalin’s regime deployed extensive propaganda to rally the Soviet people during the Great Patriotic War. Messages emphasised patriotism, sacrifice, and the defence of the Motherland, invoking historical heroes like Alexander Nevsky.
Key strategies included:
Portraying the war as a fight for survival against fascism.
Celebrating Soviet victories and minimising defeats.
Encouraging industrial output with slogans and posters.
This propaganda fostered unity and morale, crucial for sustaining resistance during crises such as the Siege of Leningrad and the Battle of Stalingrad.
The mass deportations of ethnic minorities such as Chechens, Crimean Tatars, and Volga Germans had lasting consequences. Entire populations were relocated to Central Asia and Siberia under harsh conditions, leading to high mortality rates.
These policies disrupted traditional societies and eroded trust between minority groups and the Soviet state. Many deportees were only allowed to return decades later, and even then, they faced discrimination and loss of land. The legacy of suspicion and marginalisation persisted well into the post-war Soviet era.
The wartime alliance with Britain and the United States, known as the Grand Alliance, was crucial for defeating Nazi Germany but was rooted in necessity rather than ideological alignment.
After 1945, deep ideological divisions resurfaced. The USSR sought to secure its borders by establishing satellite states in Eastern Europe, reflecting Stalin’s desire for a buffer zone against future invasions.
This shift from wartime cooperation to rivalry marked the beginning of the Cold War, shaping Soviet foreign policy for decades and redefining global geopolitics.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two major battles fought on the Eastern Front during the Second World War that were turning points for the Soviet Union.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correctly identified battle, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Battle of Stalingrad (1942–43) – 1 mark
Battle of Kursk (1943) – 1 mark
Other relevant Eastern Front battles that marked significant turning points may be accepted if justified, but these two are expected answers.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two significant ways in which the First World War contributed to the fall of the Tsarist regime in 1917.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each well-explained factor.
Military defeats and losses (up to 3 marks):
1 mark for identifying that catastrophic defeats such as Tannenberg undermined confidence in the Tsar.
1 mark for noting how Nicholas II’s decision to personally command the army linked him directly to these failures.
1 mark for explaining how widespread casualties and demoralisation eroded loyalty to the regime.
Economic and social strain (up to 3 marks):
1 mark for identifying that the war caused severe economic breakdown, including inflation and food shortages.
1 mark for explaining how conscription and rail prioritisation disrupted food supplies, leading to urban starvation.
1 mark for linking these hardships to rising discontent and the outbreak of the February Revolution.
Maximum 6 marks: 3 for each factor with detailed explanation. Partial explanations or undeveloped points should receive 1–2 marks each.
