OCR Specification focus:
‘In 1865, unions faced fragmentation amid changing labour relations.’
In 1865, American labour was deeply fragmented, emerging from the Civil War into an industrialising society where new economic realities, weak unions, and shifting power dynamics shaped workers’ lives.
The Labour Landscape in 1865
The year 1865 marked a pivotal turning point in the history of labour and trade unions in the United States. The end of the Civil War brought profound political, economic and social changes that transformed the nature of work and the conditions of workers. Industrialisation, urban growth, and the rise of wage labour fundamentally altered employment relationships, while the legal and political framework remained largely unsupportive of workers’ rights.
The Transition from Artisan to Wage Labour
Before the Civil War, the American workforce was dominated by skilled artisans and craftsmen, often working independently or in small workshops. However, by 1865, this world was rapidly changing as industrialisation began to reshape the economy. The expansion of railroads, factories, and mechanised production meant that labour became increasingly wage-based and dependent on large-scale employers.
Stereograph of the Starr Arms Factory interior, c.1865, showing dense arrays of power-driven machinery. Such settings underpinned the shift from independent craft to regimented wage labour in large enterprises. The image focuses on equipment rather than workers to highlight mechanisation’s scale. Source
The rise of mass production reduced the autonomy of skilled workers.
Mechanisation devalued traditional craft skills, increasing the reliance on unskilled or semi-skilled labour.
Work became more regimented, with long hours, low wages, and dangerous conditions commonplace.
This transition undermined the traditional bargaining power of individual workers and created conditions in which collective organisation became increasingly necessary.
Fragmentation and the Early Trade Union Movement
Despite the growing need for organised labour, the union movement in 1865 was fragmented and weak. Workers faced numerous obstacles in forming and sustaining unions, ranging from legal restrictions to internal divisions.
Local and Craft-Based Organisations
Most unions at this time were local craft unions, representing workers with specific skills in particular towns or cities. These organisations were typically small and lacked national coordination.
Examples include printers, shoemakers, and carpenters forming local societies.
Their focus was often narrow, centred on wage levels, working hours, or apprenticeship standards.
There was little collaboration between different trades or across regions.
This lack of unity limited their ability to exert pressure on employers or influence government policy.
Obstacles to Union Growth
Several significant challenges hampered the development of a strong national labour movement in 1865:
Legal hostility: Courts often viewed unions as illegal conspiracies in restraint of trade, limiting their activities.
Employer resistance: Employers frequently used blacklists, lockouts, and hired strike-breakers to suppress union activity.
Economic instability: Post-war economic fluctuations made it difficult to sustain collective organisation.
Worker divisions: Ethnic, racial, and skill-based divisions among workers created internal fractures within the labour force.
The result was a labour movement that was fragmented and reactive, rather than united and strategic.
The Impact of the Civil War and Emancipation
The Civil War (1861–1865) had profound effects on labour relations in the United States, reshaping the workforce and altering the context in which unions operated.
Expansion of Wage Labour
The war effort accelerated the growth of industrial production, particularly in the North. Factories producing weapons, uniforms, and other war materials required large numbers of workers, leading to an increase in wage labour and a shift away from traditional self-employment.
Many workers moved from rural areas to urban centres in search of industrial jobs.
Women entered the workforce in greater numbers, though often in poorly paid and insecure positions.
The End of Slavery and the Labour Market
The emancipation of enslaved African Americans in 1865 introduced new dynamics into the labour market.
Emancipation: The legal act of freeing enslaved people, culminating in the abolition of slavery with the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865.
Freed people sought economic independence through land ownership and wage labour, though they often faced severe discrimination and exploitation.
In the South, the rise of sharecropping and tenant farming created a semi-coercive labour system that limited mobility and bargaining power.
Freedmen’s Bureau officials recorded labour contracts to regulate post-emancipation employment. This 1865 agreement specifies wages, rations, housing, and medical care, and requires Bureau approval to cancel the contract. It exemplifies how federal oversight sought fairness while preserving employers’ leverage. Source
Racial prejudice frequently excluded African Americans from unions and skilled trades, reinforcing divisions within the workforce.
These changes further complicated the labour environment, making unified organisation more difficult.
Labour Conditions in 1865
Conditions for most workers in 1865 were harsh and exploitative. Industrial workplaces were characterised by long hours, poor safety standards, and minimal legal protections.
Working hours often exceeded 10–12 hours a day, six days a week.
Child labour was common, especially in textile mills and factories.
Workplace accidents were frequent, with no compensation or safety regulations.
Wages were low and irregular, barely sustaining subsistence living for many families.
The absence of effective legislation meant that workers had little recourse against exploitation. Early union efforts aimed to address these immediate grievances, although their limited power constrained their success.
The Role of Employers and Government
The political and legal environment in 1865 offered little support to organised labour. Governments tended to prioritise economic growth and property rights over workers’ rights, and employers wielded considerable influence.
Employer Power and Resistance
Employers viewed unions as a threat to profits and managerial authority. Common tactics to suppress union activity included:
Blacklisting: Circulating the names of union organisers to prevent their employment elsewhere.
Lockouts: Temporarily shutting down operations to break strikes.
Strike-breakers: Hiring replacement workers, often immigrants or African Americans, to undermine industrial action.
These measures reinforced the power imbalance between capital and labour, making it difficult for unions to gain traction.
Judicial and Legislative Hostility
The legal system frequently sided with employers. Courts invoked common law doctrines against unions, treating them as conspiracies or illegal combinations. Moreover, there was no federal legislation recognising workers’ rights or regulating workplace conditions.
The laissez-faire economic philosophy prevalent in this era discouraged government intervention in labour disputes.
The federal government was largely indifferent to the plight of workers, focusing instead on economic expansion and Reconstruction in the South.
Early Signs of Organisation and Future Developments
Despite these challenges, the seeds of a more organised labour movement were being sown. Workers increasingly recognised the need for collective action to improve wages, hours, and conditions.
Local unions occasionally coordinated strikes and protests, though with limited success.
The period saw the emergence of mutual aid societies that provided financial support during illness or unemployment, laying groundwork for future union structures.
The foundations were being laid for the formation of national organisations, such as the National Labor Union (NLU) in 1866, which sought to unite disparate groups under a common banner.
These developments hinted at the transformation that would unfold in the decades to come, as fragmented unions gradually evolved into more coordinated and powerful movements.
FAQ
Employers in the 1860s were overwhelmingly hostile to unions, viewing them as threats to profits and managerial control. Most believed that wages and conditions should be determined by the free market, not collective bargaining.
They used aggressive tactics such as:
Blacklisting known union activists to prevent them from finding work.
Lockouts to break strikes by closing workplaces.
Employing strike-breakers, often from marginalised groups, to replace striking workers.
This hostility discouraged union membership and made organising risky and often unsuccessful.
Immigration significantly altered the composition of the labour force. Large numbers of Irish and German immigrants entered industrial work, often accepting low wages and poor conditions.
This created tensions:
Native-born workers sometimes resented immigrants for undercutting wages.
Employers exploited these divisions to weaken union efforts and prevent unified action.
Ethnic enclaves also led to fragmented labour organisation, as unions were often formed within specific ethnic communities rather than across the workforce as a whole.
Before 1865, most labour organisations were local or trade-specific. However, there were early experiments in broader coordination.
The National Trades' Union (NTU), established in 1834, was the first attempt to unite local unions across different trades. It collapsed during the economic depression of 1837, highlighting the vulnerability of early labour movements.
By 1865, there was renewed interest in national organisation due to industrial expansion. This would soon lead to the founding of the National Labor Union (NLU) in 1866, signalling a shift toward more ambitious collective action.
Child labour was widespread in factories, mines, and workshops. Children were employed because they could be paid less and perform tasks in confined spaces.
This had several consequences:
It depressed overall wage levels, weakening adult workers’ bargaining power.
It sparked some early public criticism of industrial labour practices, though widespread reform did not occur until decades later.
It reinforced the power imbalance between labour and capital, as families relied on child income to survive.
Trade unions often focused more on adult male workers, so child labour remained largely unchallenged in 1865.
Reconstruction policies aimed to integrate formerly enslaved people into the economy, but their effect on labour relations was mixed.
The Freedmen’s Bureau oversaw labour contracts and sought to prevent exploitation, but its resources were limited.
Sharecropping and tenant farming systems emerged, tying freed people to landowners in semi-coercive economic relationships.
Federal intervention was temporary, and southern states quickly passed Black Codes that restricted economic mobility and labour rights.
These factors entrenched racial and economic inequalities in labour relations, influencing both Black workers’ status and the broader struggle for labour rights.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two key challenges faced by trade unions in the United States in 1865.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correct challenge identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers:
Legal hostility, with courts viewing unions as illegal conspiracies. (1)
Employer resistance, such as blacklisting, lockouts, and hiring strike-breakers. (1)
Divisions among workers based on race, ethnicity, or skill. (1)
Economic instability following the Civil War. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how industrialisation affected labour relations and trade unions in the United States in 1865.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic statements with limited explanation.
May simply describe industrialisation without linking it to labour relations.
Example: “Industrialisation increased the number of factories. Workers had to work for wages.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Clear explanation of at least one effect of industrialisation on labour relations or unions.
Some understanding of changing work patterns or union fragmentation.
Example: “Industrialisation introduced mechanised production which reduced workers’ independence. This weakened individual bargaining power and encouraged attempts at unionisation.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Developed explanation of multiple effects of industrialisation on labour relations and trade unions.
Clear links between industrialisation, changes in work, and the weakness of early unions.
Use of relevant examples or context from 1865.
Example: “Industrialisation transformed work from skilled artisan labour to wage labour in factories, undermining workers’ autonomy. The rise of large-scale employers increased the need for collective organisation, but unions remained weak and fragmented, often confined to local craft-based groups. Mechanisation also created divisions between skilled and unskilled workers, limiting the effectiveness of early trade union movements.”
