OCR Specification focus:
‘The World Wars transformed demand, bargaining power and policy.’
The two World Wars significantly reshaped labour relations in the United States, altering workforce composition, strengthening trade unions, and transforming government policies on labour rights and industrial relations.
The First World War and Labour Transformation (1914–1918)
Changing Labour Demand and Workforce Expansion
The First World War (1914–1918) marked a pivotal moment for American labour. Though the United States entered the conflict in 1917, the war’s demands immediately reshaped the workforce and industrial landscape.
Wartime production surged, driving demand for industrial labour, particularly in steel, shipbuilding, munitions, and transport.
Employers recruited previously excluded groups, including women, African Americans, and immigrants, to meet labour shortages.
The Great Migration saw hundreds of thousands of African Americans move from the rural South to northern industrial cities seeking war-related employment.
Great Migration: The large-scale movement of African Americans from the southern United States to northern cities between 1916 and 1970, initially driven by wartime labour demand.
The entry of these groups into the workforce altered social dynamics and increased demands for equality and rights in the workplace.
Government Intervention and Labour Policy
The federal government assumed a more active role in labour relations during the war. The priority was maintaining production and preventing strikes that could jeopardise the war effort.
The National War Labor Board (NWLB), established in 1918, mediated disputes between workers and employers, encouraging negotiation and discouraging strikes.
It supported collective bargaining, recognised workers’ right to join trade unions, and pressed employers to improve conditions and wages.
Many unions saw a rapid rise in membership due to increased government support and workers’ confidence.
National War Labor Board (NWLB): A government body created in 1918 to resolve industrial disputes, encourage collective bargaining, and maintain production during World War I.
This intervention marked a significant departure from the pre-war laissez-faire approach, where federal authorities had often sided with employers.
Trade Union Growth and Gains
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) particularly benefited from wartime policies:
Union membership grew from 2.7 million in 1916 to over 4 million by 1919.
Employers accepted unions in key industries, and strikes were often settled favourably for workers.
Workers enjoyed higher wages, shorter hours, and improved conditions, though many of these gains were not permanent.
However, after the war, much of this progress was reversed. The post-war Red Scare (1919–1920) and economic downturn weakened unions and reduced bargaining power.
The Second World War and Labour’s Transformation (1939–1945)
Mobilisation and Demand for Labour
The Second World War (1939–1945) had an even more profound and lasting effect on labour. U.S. involvement from 1941 triggered a massive mobilisation of industry and labour.
Total war transformed the economy into a war production powerhouse, with demand for labour skyrocketing across sectors.
Over 15 million Americans served in the armed forces, creating significant labour shortages at home.
Employers increasingly recruited women, African Americans, and migrant workers, diversifying the workforce further.
The iconic “Rosie the Riveter” campaign symbolised women’s entry into heavy industry, with over 6 million women entering the workforce during the war.
This 1942–43 War Production Board poster by J. Howard Miller became the emblem of women’s expanded role in wartime industry. It illustrates federal mobilisation messaging that normalised women’s work in factories to meet labour shortages. Although popularly called “Rosie the Riveter,” the image was one of several used to boost production. Source
Government Control and Labour Relations
The federal government again expanded its role to manage industrial relations and maintain productivity.
The War Labor Board (WLB), re-established in 1942, regulated wages and working conditions, arbitrated disputes, and enforced compliance.
It encouraged union recognition, stabilised wages to prevent inflation, and ensured uninterrupted war production.
Strikes were strongly discouraged, and unions largely complied with a “no-strike pledge” in exchange for greater bargaining rights.
War Labor Board (WLB): A federal agency re-established in 1942 to regulate labour relations, arbitrate disputes, and ensure industrial peace during World War II.
This collaboration marked a high point in labour-government cooperation, contrasting sharply with earlier hostility.
Union Strength and Political Influence
The wartime period witnessed an unprecedented rise in union strength and influence:
Union membership soared to over 14 million by 1945, representing around 35% of the non-agricultural workforce.
The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) gained prominence by organising previously unorganised industries like automotive and steel.
Collective bargaining became a widely accepted principle, and many wartime agreements included benefits such as health insurance and paid leave.
Labour leaders also gained political influence, forming alliances with the Democratic Party and shaping aspects of New Deal legislation.
Social Change and Minority Workers
The war accelerated social change and highlighted inequalities:
African Americans, though still facing discrimination, secured greater employment opportunities. Pressure from groups like the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) helped reduce overt workplace discrimination.
This 1943 OWI photograph-based poster by Liberman promoted interracial cooperation to keep production flowing. It reflects federal efforts to stabilise labour relations and widen access to defence work. The image includes broader patriotic iconography (flag and slogan), which extends beyond your syllabus focus but clarifies the state’s mobilisation message. Source
Women’s expanded wartime roles challenged traditional gender norms, laying groundwork for later feminist movements.
Mexican labourers entered the workforce under the Bracero Program (1942–1964), addressing agricultural labour shortages but also raising concerns about exploitation.
Despite these advances, many minority workers faced post-war setbacks as returning servicemen reclaimed jobs, and discrimination persisted in hiring and promotion.
Post-War Adjustments and Legacy
Labour’s Post-War Challenges
The end of both wars brought challenges for organised labour:
After World War I, unions faced employer resistance, declining membership, and hostility during the Red Scare.
After World War II, strikes surged as workers demanded higher wages and better conditions to match rising post-war profits.
The federal government, now less reliant on labour cooperation, introduced restrictive legislation such as the Taft-Hartley Act (1947), limiting union power and banning certain tactics.
Taft-Hartley Act (1947): U.S. legislation that restricted union activities, prohibited certain strikes, and allowed states to pass “right-to-work” laws, weakening organised labour’s influence.
Long-Term Effects on Labour Relations
The two World Wars left a lasting legacy on American labour relations:
They entrenched collective bargaining as a standard feature of industrial relations.
Government intervention in labour disputes became more accepted and institutionalised.
Workers’ expectations regarding rights, wages, and working conditions rose significantly.
Trade unions emerged as powerful social and political forces, despite periodic setbacks.
The wars transformed the relationship between labour, employers, and the state, setting the stage for post-war debates over labour rights and the balance of power in the American workplace.
FAQ
Both World Wars accelerated the institutionalisation of labour rights through federal intervention. During the First World War, the establishment of the National War Labor Board (NWLB) legitimised collective bargaining and recognised unions as negotiation partners.
The Second World War deepened this legal recognition with the War Labor Board (WLB) standardising wage controls and dispute resolution. These interventions laid the groundwork for post-war labour legislation, influencing later laws such as the Fair Labor Standards Act and shaping federal expectations about regulating workplace relations.
Government propaganda framed labour as essential to national victory, elevating the status of workers and encouraging cooperation. Posters like “We Can Do It!” and “United We Win” promoted inclusion of women and minority workers while emphasising productivity and unity.
This messaging helped reduce resistance to workforce diversification and discouraged strikes. Propaganda also connected labour contributions directly to patriotism, redefining industrial work as part of the national war effort rather than just an economic activity.
Despite government support for unions, many employers feared that strong unions would limit their control over wages, hours, and hiring practices. Some attempted to bypass unions by creating company unions, which offered limited worker representation without full collective bargaining rights.
Others relied on legal loopholes or resisted WLB decisions, challenging compulsory arbitration. After both wars, employer resistance intensified, leading to anti-union legislation like the Taft-Hartley Act (1947), reflecting a shift back towards business interests once wartime necessity had passed.
During the First World War, African Americans migrated north in large numbers but faced segregation and were often confined to low-paid, unskilled work. Few federal protections existed, and racial discrimination remained widespread.
By the Second World War, activism and pressure from organisations like the NAACP led to more significant changes. President Roosevelt’s Executive Order 8802 (1941) banned racial discrimination in defence industries, and the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) enforced this. Although inequality persisted, African Americans gained greater access to industrial jobs and a stronger political voice.
The no-strike pledge helped ensure continuous war production but created tensions within unions. Members sometimes felt leadership was too cooperative with government and employers, leading to internal disputes.
After 1945, pent-up frustrations erupted in a wave of strikes as workers sought higher wages and better conditions in peacetime. These strikes influenced public opinion and contributed to the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act, which imposed new restrictions on union activity and reshaped the post-war labour landscape.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two ways in which the United States government intervened in labour relations during the Second World War.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct way identified (maximum 2 marks):
Creation of the War Labor Board (WLB) to arbitrate disputes.
Encouragement of collective bargaining and union recognition.
Enforcement of a “no-strike pledge” to maintain production.
Regulation of wages and working conditions to prevent inflation and industrial unrest.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the Second World War transformed the role and strength of trade unions in the United States.
Mark scheme:
Award marks according to the following levels:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic description with limited detail.May identify a single change such as increased membership or mention government involvement without explanation.
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation with relevant examples.Notes that union membership increased and mentions government policies like the War Labor Board or the no-strike pledge, but lacks depth.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Detailed explanation with accurate and relevant knowledge.Explains how membership soared to around 14 million by 1945.
Discusses how government policies such as WLB arbitration, wage regulation, and support for collective bargaining strengthened unions.
May include how unions gained political influence and secured workplace benefits like paid leave and health insurance.
