OCR Specification focus:
‘The 1960s and César Chavez’s UFW expanded labour rights.’
The 1960s marked a pivotal era in American labour history, as César Chavez and the United Farm Workers (UFW) transformed union strategies and expanded labour rights.
The Context of Labour Rights in the 1960s
The 1960s was a decade of major social upheaval and reform in the United States, with civil rights activism, anti-war movements and economic changes reshaping the political landscape. Labour rights were a significant part of this transformation. Post-war economic prosperity had not extended evenly, and migrant agricultural workers, many of them Mexican American or of Latino descent, faced chronic exploitation, poor wages, hazardous working conditions and little legal protection. Traditional unions often ignored their plight, leaving a vacuum that new grassroots movements sought to fill.
The broader civil rights movement created a climate in which marginalised groups demanded justice and equality. This environment was crucial for the rise of farmworker activism, which combined labour rights struggles with ethnic identity and civil rights rhetoric. Into this space stepped César Chavez, whose leadership would redefine how labour campaigns were fought and perceived.
César Chavez and the Origins of the UFW
Early Life and Influences
César Chavez (1927–1993) was born into a Mexican American farming family in Arizona. Witnessing firsthand the injustices faced by migrant labourers, he was deeply influenced by Catholic social teaching, the non-violent philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, and the tactics of Martin Luther King Jr. These influences shaped his vision of labour activism as a moral struggle as much as an economic one.
Founding the United Farm Workers
Chavez co-founded the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) in 1962 with Dolores Huerta, another key figure in the farmworker movement. The NFWA initially focused on organising workers, providing legal aid, and promoting self-help initiatives. In 1966, the NFWA merged with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), a group supported by the AFL-CIO, to form the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC), which later became the United Farm Workers (UFW).
Flag of the United Farm Workers featuring the stylised black eagle on a white disc over a red field. Designed in the 1960s, it became a unifying emblem on picket lines, marches and boycott literature. Note: this is a diagrammatic vector of the flag; it shows symbolism rather than a historical scene. Source
United Farm Workers (UFW): A labour union founded in the 1960s to represent farmworkers, advocating for better wages, working conditions, and legal protections through non-violent activism.
The UFW was unique among unions of the time. It was multi-ethnic, bringing together Mexican, Filipino and other Latino workers, and grassroots-led, prioritising democratic participation and community involvement over top-down leadership.
Strategies and Tactics of the UFW
The UFW’s campaigns in the 1960s pioneered new approaches to labour activism. Chavez and his allies believed that traditional strikes and negotiations needed to be complemented by moral pressure, public visibility, and coalition-building.
Non-violent Direct Action
Chavez championed non-violence as a fundamental principle. Inspired by Gandhi and King, he argued that moral legitimacy would win broader public support. Key non-violent methods included:
Strikes – Farmworkers stopped work to demand better pay and conditions, often at great personal risk.
Marches – Long, symbolic marches drew national attention to the plight of agricultural labourers.
Fasts – Chavez himself undertook hunger strikes to demonstrate commitment and appeal to public conscience.
Boycotts – Perhaps the most powerful tool, nationwide consumer boycotts pressured companies economically and gained widespread sympathy.
The Delano Grape Strike and Boycott (1965–1970)
The most famous example of UFW activism was the Delano Grape Strike, which began in September 1965 when Filipino grape workers, organised by AWOC, walked off the fields in protest. The NFWA joined the strike soon after, uniting Mexican and Filipino workers in a rare show of solidarity.
The strike evolved into a national boycott of table grapes, which lasted five years and involved millions of Americans refusing to buy grapes.
UFW strikers on a Delano roadside, October 1965. The scene illustrates field-adjacent picketing during the early months of the grape strike, when Filipino and Mexican American workers joined forces. Signs and organisation on the line reflect the campaign’s disciplined, non-violent tactics discussed in the notes. Source
Chavez’s use of media and alliances with churches, students and civil rights groups amplified the campaign’s reach. By 1970, grape growers agreed to contracts with the UFW, granting higher wages, improved working conditions and union recognition.
Expansion of Labour Rights
The achievements of the UFW in the 1960s went beyond immediate workplace gains. They transformed the landscape of American labour relations in several important ways.
Legal and Political Advances
The success of the UFW helped spur state-level legislation, such as California’s Agricultural Labor Relations Act (1975), which extended collective bargaining rights to farmworkers – a group previously excluded from the National Labor Relations Act (1935).
Chavez’s campaigns influenced federal attitudes toward migrant workers, prompting discussions about minimum wage protections and pesticide regulation.
Collective Bargaining: Negotiation between employers and a group of employees (often represented by a union) to determine conditions of employment, including wages, hours and working conditions.
Broader Social and Cultural Impact
The UFW also:
Raised national awareness of farmworkers’ conditions, reframing their struggle as a matter of civil and human rights.
Encouraged other marginalised groups, including women and Native Americans, to pursue similar grassroots activism.
Contributed to the broader Chicano Movement, which sought cultural pride and political power for Mexican Americans.
Legacy and Challenges
While the UFW achieved significant victories, challenges remained. Mechanisation, legal loopholes, and aggressive anti-union tactics by employers limited its long-term power. Membership fluctuated, and by the late 1970s, the union’s influence declined from its peak. Nevertheless, the foundation laid in the 1960s endured, and the symbolism of the UFW’s struggle continued to inspire future movements.
Redefining Labour Activism in the 1960s
The work of César Chavez and the UFW in the 1960s represented a turning point in American labour history. By merging labour activism with the language and tactics of civil rights, they redefined how unions could fight for justice. Their innovative use of non-violent protest, boycotts, and community organisation expanded labour rights beyond the industrial workforce to include the most vulnerable and marginalised. Although the UFW’s influence waned in later decades, its legacy is a testament to the power of grassroots activism and the enduring struggle for economic justice in America.
FAQ
Dolores Huerta was a co-founder of the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) alongside César Chavez in 1962. A skilled organiser and negotiator, she was crucial in developing the union’s strategy and advocating for workers’ rights.
Huerta played a leading role in securing contracts during the Delano Grape Strike and later served as the UFW’s chief lobbyist, influencing state and federal policy on labour rights. Her emphasis on gender equality within the union also paved the way for greater female participation in the farmworker movement.
Catholic social teaching significantly shaped Chavez’s vision of labour activism as a moral and spiritual struggle. He often framed the fight for farmworkers’ rights as a quest for justice and human dignity.
Chavez incorporated religious symbolism and practices into the movement, such as prayers during marches, church support for boycotts, and fasting as a form of penance and protest. This spiritual approach broadened public sympathy and attracted support from clergy, faith-based organisations, and communities across the United States.
The UFW’s campaigns paralleled and often intersected with the broader civil rights movement of the 1960s. Chavez drew inspiration from Martin Luther King Jr.’s emphasis on non-violence and moral authority.
Civil rights groups such as the NAACP, CORE, and SNCC supported the grape boycott, while figures like King and Robert F. Kennedy publicly endorsed the UFW’s efforts. This alliance helped elevate farmworkers’ issues to a national stage and framed them as part of America’s larger struggle for equality and social justice.
The 1935 National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) excluded agricultural workers due to political compromises with Southern lawmakers and agribusiness interests, who relied on cheap, non-unionised labour. This exclusion left farmworkers without legal protections such as collective bargaining rights.
The UFW addressed this gap through direct action, boycotts, and public campaigns to pressure employers into voluntary agreements. Their success influenced later legislation, including California’s Agricultural Labor Relations Act (1975), which extended legal protections and set a precedent for farmworker rights at the state level.
Chavez and the UFW skilfully used media to shape public opinion. They staged visually compelling events, such as long marches and peaceful pickets, which drew television and newspaper attention.
Photographs of workers carrying religious icons or Chavez fasting reinforced the moral dimension of the struggle. Media coverage amplified the grape boycott’s reach, encouraging millions of consumers nationwide to participate. This publicity transformed a local farmworkers’ dispute into a national movement, exerting economic and political pressure on growers to negotiate.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two non-violent methods used by César Chavez and the United Farm Workers (UFW) in their campaigns during the 1960s.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct non-violent method identified (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers include:Strikes
Boycotts
Marches
Fasts / hunger strikes
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Delano Grape Strike and boycott (1965–1970) contributed to the expansion of labour rights in the United States.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 6 marks based on the quality and accuracy of the explanation.
1–2 marks: Basic knowledge shown. Limited detail, e.g., states that the UFW organised a strike and boycott to improve working conditions.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of the impact of the strike and boycott. May mention that national attention was drawn to farmworkers’ conditions, leading to improved wages and recognition by employers.
5–6 marks: Detailed explanation showing thorough understanding. May include:
The strike united Filipino and Mexican American workers and lasted five years.
The nationwide boycott mobilised millions and placed economic pressure on growers.
By 1970, contracts with growers granted better pay, conditions, and union recognition.
The campaign helped pave the way for future labour legislation, such as the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act (1975), extending collective bargaining rights.
