OCR Specification focus:
‘Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood developed from 1920 as a religious and political movement.’
From its origins in the 1920s, the Muslim Brotherhood became a pivotal force in Egyptian society and politics, shaping the interplay between Islam, nationalism and state power.
Origins and Early Development (1920s–1930s)
Founding by Hassan al-Banna
The Muslim Brotherhood (al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun) was founded in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, a young schoolteacher, in the town of Ismailia.
Hassan al-Banna (1906–1949), founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, whose programme blended Islamic revival, social welfare and anti-colonial nationalism. The portrait is contemporaneous and provides a reliable visual reference for the movement’s early leadership. Source
Locator map highlighting Ismailia in Egypt, on the Suez Canal. The city’s canal-zone location helps explain the Brotherhood’s early social and anti-colonial focus among workers and communities affected by foreign presence. Source
Muslim Brotherhood: A Sunni Islamist organisation founded in Egypt in 1928 that sought to promote Islamic principles in public and political life.
Al-Banna’s vision combined Islamic revivalism, social reform, and anti-colonial nationalism. He believed Islam offered not only a faith but also a comprehensive system of governance and society. His slogan — “Islam is the solution” — encapsulated this holistic worldview.
Aims and Ideology
The Brotherhood’s aims reflected both religious and political aspirations:
Re-Islamisation of Egyptian society through education, charitable work, and moral reform.
Resistance to Western colonialism and secular influences undermining Islamic identity.
Establishment of an Islamic state governed by sharia (Islamic law).
It promoted a bottom-up approach, beginning with individual piety, then family and community reform, and ultimately political transformation.
Expansion, Organisation and Social Role
Growth of the Movement
The Brotherhood expanded rapidly during the 1930s and 1940s, establishing branches across Egypt and spreading to other Arab countries. By the late 1940s, it claimed over 500,000 members and influenced millions more.
Its appeal rested on:
Grassroots networks of schools, clinics, and charities addressing social needs neglected by the state.
A discipline-based organisational structure with local usra (family) units fostering loyalty and activism.
Emphasis on moral reform, Islamic education, and public preaching.
Anti-Colonialism and Political Engagement
The Brotherhood actively opposed British occupation and criticised the monarchy and liberal Wafd Party for failing to achieve independence or social justice. It became a potent force in anti-colonial protests, aligning its religious message with nationalist sentiment.
During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Brotherhood sent volunteers to fight alongside Arab forces, enhancing its reputation as a defender of Islam and the Arab cause.
Confrontation with the State (1940s–1950s)
Suppression under the Monarchy
The Brotherhood’s growing influence alarmed the monarchy and political elite. Its suspected involvement in political assassinations, including that of Prime Minister Mahmoud al-Nuqrashi (1948), led to its dissolution and the assassination of al-Banna in 1949. Despite repression, it remained resilient and reorganised after 1951.
Relationship with the Free Officers and Nasser
Initially, the Brotherhood supported the 1952 revolution led by the Free Officers, who overthrew King Farouk. However, tensions soon arose between the Brotherhood’s demand for an Islamic state and Gamal Abdel Nasser’s secular nationalist vision.
In 1954, after an alleged Brotherhood attempt to assassinate Nasser, the regime launched a brutal crackdown.
Thousands were imprisoned, tortured, or executed, and the organisation was banned.
Ideological Evolution and Sayyid Qutb
Radicalisation under Repression
Persecution radicalised elements within the Brotherhood. The most influential figure of this era was Sayyid Qutb, whose writings reshaped Islamist thought.
Jahiliyya: An Islamic term meaning “age of ignorance”, used by Qutb to describe societies that rejected God’s sovereignty.
In his seminal work Milestones (1964), Qutb argued that contemporary regimes, even those in Muslim countries, had reverted to jahiliyya by not ruling according to sharia. He called for a vanguard of true believers to lead an Islamic revolution.
Although the Brotherhood leadership did not officially endorse Qutb’s call for violence, his ideas deeply influenced Islamist movements across the Middle East.
Survival, Adaptation and Resurgence (1970s–2000s)
Shifts under Sadat
Under Anwar Sadat (1970–1981), the Brotherhood was partially rehabilitated. Sadat sought to counterbalance Nasserist leftist influence by allowing Islamist groups greater freedom, though the Brotherhood remained technically illegal.
The organisation focused on:
Expanding its social services and educational networks.
Participating in professional associations and student unions.
Advocating for gradual Islamisation through non-violent means.
Despite its moderation, radical splinter groups emerged, such as al-Jama’a al-Islamiyya, which ultimately assassinated Sadat in 1981.
Mubarak Era and Political Engagement
During Hosni Mubarak’s presidency (1981–2011), the Brotherhood operated in a legal grey zone. Although banned as a political party, it fielded independent candidates in elections, becoming the largest opposition bloc in parliament by the 2000s.
Key features of this period:
Continued emphasis on social welfare and grassroots mobilisation.
Advocacy for political reform, transparency, and anti-corruption measures.
Persistent state repression, including arrests, surveillance, and legal restrictions.
The Brotherhood’s approach during this era reflected a pragmatic strategy: avoiding direct confrontation while steadily expanding influence within Egypt’s political system.
Revolution and Political Ascendancy (2011)
The Arab Spring uprising of 2011 transformed Egypt’s political landscape. The Brotherhood, through its newly formed Freedom and Justice Party, emerged as the most organised and popular political force.
In the 2011–2012 parliamentary elections, it won a plurality of seats.
Mohamed Morsi, a senior Brotherhood figure, became Egypt’s first democratically elected president in 2012.
However, Morsi’s presidency was short-lived. His attempts to consolidate power and implement Islamist-oriented policies provoked mass protests. In 2013, the military overthrew Morsi, banned the Brotherhood once again, and declared it a terrorist organisation.
Legacy and Significance
The Muslim Brotherhood’s trajectory from 1928 to 2011 reflects the complex interplay of religion, politics, and state power in modern Egypt. It evolved from a grassroots religious revivalist movement into a major political actor, shaping debates over Islam’s role in governance, national identity, and modernity. Despite cycles of repression and resurgence, the Brotherhood remains a central force in Egyptian and wider Middle Eastern politics, embodying both the potential and limits of political Islam in the modern state system.
FAQ
The Brotherhood established an extensive network of schools, hospitals, clinics, and welfare organisations, particularly in working-class and rural communities neglected by the state.
These services:
Addressed widespread poverty and illiteracy.
Strengthened the Brotherhood’s grassroots support by demonstrating Islamic values in action.
Created loyalty among communities, helping the organisation grow despite political repression.
By the 1940s, these efforts positioned the Broth
British influence in Egypt after 1882 fostered nationalist resentment and social inequality. Western political models and secular education systems alienated many Egyptians, creating a desire for cultural and religious authenticity.
The Brotherhood capitalised on this discontent by presenting Islam as both a resistance ideology and a comprehensive solution to social and political problems. Its anti-colonial rhetoric resonated with Egyptians frustrated by foreign control of the Suez Canal, economic exploitation, and perceived moral decay.
While al-Banna promoted gradual Islamisation through social reform and education, Qutb advanced a more radical interpretation. He argued that modern Muslim societies had fallen into jahiliyya (ignorance) and required revolutionary change.
Qutb’s concept of a vanguard of true believers leading an Islamic revolution marked a shift towards activism and confrontation. Although the Brotherhood leadership did not officially adopt violent strategies, Qutb’s ideas deeply influenced later Islamist movements, including those advocating militancy.
The Brotherhood became a powerful force in Egyptian universities from the 1930s onwards, where it recruited many of its future leaders.
Student branches promoted Islamic values and opposed Western influence on education and culture.
They organised protests against British rule and government policies, often clashing with secular and leftist student groups.
This influence helped the Brotherhood sustain momentum despite state repression, embedding Islamist ideology within Egypt’s educated classes.
Morsi’s presidency (2012–2013) faced criticism for attempting to consolidate power and push Islamist-aligned policies. His November 2012 constitutional declaration granting himself temporary sweeping powers alarmed opponents and sparked mass protests.
Critics accused him of undermining democratic checks and marginalising secular and minority voices. Growing unrest, economic problems, and deepening political polarisation culminated in the July 2013 military coup, ending Brotherhood rule and triggering renewed repression.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (3 marks):
Identify three aims of the Muslim Brotherhood when it was founded in 1928.
Mark scheme (3 marks):
Award 1 mark for each valid aim identified, up to a maximum of 3 marks.
Possible answers include:
To re-Islamise Egyptian society through education, charity and moral reform. (1)
To resist Western colonial influence and preserve Islamic identity. (1)
To establish an Islamic state governed by sharia law. (1)
To promote Islamic principles as a comprehensive guide for governance and society. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the policies of Gamal Abdel Nasser affected the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1950s.
Mark scheme (6 marks):
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic or generalised statements with limited reference to Nasser’s policies or their impact on the Brotherhood.
May mention repression but with little detail.
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation of Nasser’s policies and their consequences for the Brotherhood
Reference to specific events (e.g. the 1954 assassination attempt) but lacking depth or balance.
Some awareness of ideological conflict between Nasser’s secular nationalism and the Brotherhood’s Islamist aims.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear and detailed explanation of how Nasser’s policies affected the Brotherhood.
Points may include: initial cooperation after the 1952 revolution, followed by growing tension over the Brotherhood’s demand for an Islamic state; the alleged 1954 assassination attempt leading to severe repression; banning of the organisation; imprisonment, torture and execution of members; and the shaping of future Brotherhood ideology under persecution.
Balanced focus on policies and consequences.
