OCR Specification focus:
‘Iran’s Islamic Revolution redefined clerical authority, state power and regional politics.’
The Iranian Revolution of 1979 transformed Iran from a Western-backed monarchy into an Islamic Republic, profoundly reshaping its governance, society, foreign policy, and influence across the Middle East.
Background to the Iranian Revolution
The Pahlavi Dynasty and Modernisation
The Pahlavi dynasty, established in 1925 by Reza Shah Pahlavi, sought to modernise Iran along Western lines. His policies aimed to secularise the state, centralise power, and reduce clerical influence.
Reza Shah (r. 1925–1941) pursued modernisation aggressively, introducing new legal codes, secular education, and infrastructure projects.
Traditional religious institutions were weakened as the state asserted control over law, education, and dress codes.
His son, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, ascended the throne in 1941 after Allied forces forced Reza Shah to abdicate during the Second World War.
The White Revolution and Opposition
In the 1960s, Mohammad Reza Shah launched the White Revolution — a programme of reforms aimed at rapid modernisation and socio-economic development.
White Revolution: A series of reforms launched by Mohammad Reza Shah in 1963 to modernise Iran’s economy, society, and governance through land redistribution, women’s suffrage, and industrialisation.
Key features included:
Land reform, breaking up large estates and redistributing land to peasants.
Expansion of women’s rights, including suffrage and increased educational opportunities.
State-led industrialisation and literacy campaigns.
Despite ambitious goals, these reforms alienated significant groups:
Clerics opposed secularisation and the erosion of Islamic law.
Bazaar merchants resented state interference in traditional commerce.
Landowners resisted land redistribution.
Urban poor suffered from rapid urbanisation without adequate welfare.
The Role of Ayatollah Khomeini and the Rise of Opposition
Ayatollah Khomeini’s Critique
A central figure in the revolutionary movement was Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi‘a cleric exiled in 1964 for denouncing the Shah’s regime.
Khomeini condemned the Shah’s alignment with the United States and Israel, portraying it as submission to Western imperialism.
He criticised secularisation as an assault on Islam and Iranian identity.
From exile in Iraq and later France, Khomeini’s sermons were distributed in Iran via cassette tapes, spreading his message widely.
Vilayat-e Faqih: The principle of “Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist”, developed by Khomeini, asserting that a senior cleric should hold ultimate political authority to ensure governance aligns with Islamic law.
This doctrine offered an alternative to both monarchy and Western-style secular democracy, fusing Islamic governance with state power.
Growing Discontent and Revolutionary Conditions
By the 1970s, Iran faced severe socio-political tensions:
Authoritarian rule: The Shah relied on SAVAK, a secret police force, to suppress dissent, leading to widespread fear and resentment.
Economic inequality: Oil revenues funded elite projects and military spending but left many Iranians impoverished.
Cultural alienation: Rapid Westernisation alienated traditional and religious communities.
Political repression: Opposition parties were banned or tightly controlled under a one-party system.
These factors converged into a broad-based opposition — uniting clerics, students, merchants, and workers — that saw the Shah as illegitimate.
The 1979 Islamic Revolution
Collapse of the Monarchy
Protests escalated throughout 1978, beginning with religious demonstrations and spreading nationwide. The regime’s violent responses, such as the “Black Friday” massacre in September 1978, intensified public anger.
Black Friday, 8 September 1978: demonstrators mass in Tehran’s Jaleh Square. Security forces’ gunfire caused heavy casualties and radicalised the movement against the Shah. This pivotal event accelerated the momentum toward the 1979 Revolution. Source
Strikes and demonstrations paralysed the economy, including vital oil production.
The Shah’s attempts at reform and concessions failed to restore legitimacy.
Facing insurmountable pressure, Mohammad Reza Shah fled Iran in January 1979.
Establishment of the Islamic Republic
Khomeini returned from exile in February 1979 to a rapturous welcome. Within weeks, the monarchy was abolished, and a referendum in March approved the establishment of an Islamic Republic.
A new constitution (1979) enshrined Islamic law as the basis of governance.
The office of Supreme Leader was created, granting clerical authority over state institutions.
Secular political figures and groups were sidelined or eliminated as Khomeini consolidated power.
Transformation of Clerical Authority and State Power
Reshaping the Political System
The revolution redefined the relationship between religion and state:
The Supreme Leader, guided by Vilayat-e Faqih, held ultimate authority over political, judicial, and military institutions.
Schematic of Iran’s political system after 1979. It shows the Supreme Leader’s overarching authority and the relationships among the Guardian Council, Assembly of Experts, President, and Majles. This visual helps students map the links between elected and unelected bodies discussed in the specification. Source
A Guardian Council of clerics gained power to veto legislation incompatible with Islam.
Elected institutions such as the Majlis (parliament) operated under clerical oversight.
This fusion of religious and political authority marked a dramatic departure from the secularising policies of the Pahlavi era.
Social and Cultural Transformation
The Islamic Republic reoriented society according to Shi‘a Islamic values:
Islamic law (Sharia) became the basis of legislation and judiciary.
Women’s rights were reshaped, with mandatory veiling and restrictions in public life.
Education and media were Islamised, promoting revolutionary ideals and Shi‘a theology.
Regional and Global Impact of the Revolution
Redefining Foreign Policy
The Islamic Revolution marked a decisive break with Iran’s previous pro-Western stance.
Relations with the United States collapsed following the 1979 hostage crisis, in which militants seized the US embassy in Tehran.
Iran adopted a policy of “neither East nor West”, rejecting alignment with either Cold War superpower.
The regime sought to export revolutionary ideology across the Middle East, supporting Shi‘a movements abroad.
The Iran–Iraq War and Regional Tensions
Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980 triggered an eight-year conflict that shaped the new republic’s identity and policies.
Map of shifting front lines during the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988). It highlights major axes of advance, defensive lines, and oil-field zones referenced in the conflict narrative. The map includes operational detail beyond the syllabus but supports understanding of scale and geography. Source
The war was framed by the Iranian leadership as a defence of the revolution and an existential struggle against aggression.
Despite devastating losses, Iran emerged with its Islamic Republic intact and its revolutionary credentials reinforced.
The revolution also reshaped Sunni–Shi‘a dynamics, inspiring Shi‘a movements in Lebanon (notably Hezbollah) and Iraq, while alarming Sunni monarchies such as Saudi Arabia.
Long-term Influence
The Islamic Revolution’s influence extended beyond Iran’s borders:
It offered an alternative model of governance combining Islamism and republicanism.
It intensified regional rivalries, particularly between Iran and Saudi Arabia.
It shaped global perceptions of political Islam, influencing Islamist movements and Western foreign policy in the Middle East.
Through its redefinition of clerical authority, transformation of state power, and reshaping of regional politics, the Iranian Revolution remains one of the most consequential events in modern Middle Eastern history.
FAQ
Traditional Shi‘a thought often promoted political quietism, accepting secular rulers until the return of the Hidden Imam. Khomeini challenged this by asserting that clerics must govern to ensure society follows Islamic principles.
His Vilayat-e Faqih doctrine placed political authority in the hands of qualified jurists, integrating religious leadership with state power. This was revolutionary within Shi‘ism, turning passive clerical oversight into active political rule and creating a theocratic state structure unprecedented in modern Islamic history.
Women were highly visible participants in protests, strikes, and revolutionary organisations. They marched alongside men, organised neighbourhood committees, and distributed revolutionary literature.
After the revolution, women’s roles shifted under Islamic law:
Mandatory hijab was introduced in public spaces.
Legal rights in marriage, divorce, and inheritance were restricted.
However, women remained active in education and employment, and female political participation persisted within the new system.
The Shah’s regime was heavily supported by the United States, both militarily and economically. Many Iranians associated U.S. influence with corruption, repression, and cultural imperialism.
The 1953 CIA-backed coup against Prime Minister Mossadeq deepened resentment, symbolising foreign interference. After the revolution, the 1979 hostage crisis — in which U.S. diplomats were held for 444 days — became a defining moment, reinforcing anti-American sentiment and framing the revolution as a rejection of Western domination.
The revolution initially caused significant disruption: strikes, nationalisation, and the flight of skilled professionals slowed economic activity. Many foreign companies withdrew, and sanctions limited trade.
The Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) further strained the economy:
Oil production plummeted, cutting state revenue.
Resources were diverted to defence spending.
Reconstruction needs surged post-war, shaping Iran’s economic policies for decades.
Despite these challenges, the state expanded social welfare programmes and increased state control over key sectors, laying foundations for a state-managed economy.
The success of an Islamic Revolution inspired movements across the Muslim world. Shi‘a groups, especially, viewed Iran as a model for combining religion and governance.
Hezbollah in Lebanon emerged with Iranian support, blending militant resistance with political activism.
Shi‘a opposition movements in Iraq and Bahrain drew ideological and financial backing from Tehran.
Even Sunni groups studied Iran’s methods, though they often rejected its Shi‘a framework, adapting revolutionary Islamism to their own contexts.
This transnational influence deepened regional rivalries, particularly between revolutionary Iran and conservative Sunni monarchies.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two key reasons why opposition to Mohammad Reza Shah increased in the 1970s.
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for each valid reason identified, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Authoritarian rule and repression by the secret police SAVAK. (1)
Growing economic inequality despite high oil revenues. (1)
Rapid Westernisation alienating traditional and religious groups. (1)
Restriction of political freedoms and banning of opposition parties. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the principle of Vilayat-e Faqih changed the nature of state power in Iran after the 1979 Revolution.
Mark Scheme:
Award marks based on the depth and accuracy of explanation.
1–2 marks: Basic description with limited detail, e.g. states that clerics gained more power.
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of how Vilayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist) placed ultimate authority in the hands of a senior cleric, such as the Supreme Leader, ensuring laws and policies conformed to Islamic principles.
5–6 marks: Developed explanation showing how this transformed Iran’s political structure, e.g. by giving the Supreme Leader authority over elected institutions, establishing the Guardian Council to vet legislation, and embedding Islamic law (Sharia) as the foundation of governance. Links to the redefinition of state power and departure from secular monarchy earn full marks.
