OCR Specification focus:
‘Pre-1914 aims, the First World War and partition: Sykes–Picot, Balfour Declaration, McMahon–Hussein letters, peace treaties.’
The First World War transformed Middle Eastern geopolitics, as Britain and France shaped partition plans through promises and agreements — the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, Sykes–Picot Agreement, and Balfour Declaration.
Pre-1914 Context and Great Power Aims
Before 1914, the Ottoman Empire dominated the Middle East, but its decline invited imperial ambitions. Britain, France, and Russia pursued influence over strategically vital territories:
Britain sought to protect the Suez Canal and routes to India, securing maritime and imperial communications.
France aimed to preserve cultural and economic influence, particularly in Syria and Lebanon.
Russia desired access to warm-water ports and influence over Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman domains.
The outbreak of the First World War (1914–1918) turned these ambitions into concrete plans for partition and control, often through secret diplomacy and contradictory promises to local and international actors.
McMahon–Hussein Correspondence (1915–1916)
Aims and Context
Britain sought Arab support against the Ottomans. Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner in Egypt, corresponded with Sharif Hussein of Mecca, leader of the Hashemite family, promising independence in exchange for an Arab revolt.
McMahon–Hussein Correspondence: A series of letters (1915–1916) between Sir Henry McMahon and Sharif Hussein in which Britain promised support for an independent Arab state in return for revolt against the Ottoman Empire.
Key Features
Hussein agreed to lead a revolt against Ottoman rule, which began in June 1916, aiding British campaigns.
Britain appeared to promise independence for Arab lands, though territorial boundaries were ambiguously defined.
McMahon excluded certain areas (e.g. parts of Syria and Palestine) from the promise, a source of later controversy.
Consequences
The correspondence became a foundation for Arab nationalist claims after the war.
Britain’s later policies, however, contradicted these promises, creating deep mistrust and resentment.
Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916)
Secret Wartime Diplomacy
While negotiating with Hussein, Britain simultaneously discussed partitioning Ottoman lands with France and Russia. The Sykes–Picot Agreement, concluded in May 1916, was a secret agreement outlining spheres of influence.
A contemporary map of the Sykes–Picot Agreement delineating proposed British and French control and influence across Syria, Mesopotamia and adjoining regions. It shows the envisaged international administration for Palestine and labelled zones that later informed mandate boundaries. Source
Sykes–Picot Agreement: A secret Anglo–French agreement of 1916 that divided the Ottoman Middle East into spheres of influence: Britain in southern Mesopotamia and Palestine, France in Syria and Lebanon.
Terms of the Agreement
France: Direct control over coastal Syria and Lebanon; indirect influence inland.
Britain: Control over southern Mesopotamia (Iraq) and influence over the Arabian Peninsula and Transjordan.
Palestine: Placed under international administration, anticipating competing religious and political interests.
Russia: Promised Istanbul and the Straits (agreement later voided after the 1917 Revolution).
Significance
It contradicted the McMahon–Hussein promises of Arab independence.
It reflected imperialist aims over self-determination, prioritising strategic and economic interests.
Revelation of the agreement by the Bolsheviks in 1917 shocked Arab leaders, who felt betrayed.
Balfour Declaration (1917)
Strategic and Political Motivations
By 1917, British policy was evolving. Seeking support from global Jewish communities and to strengthen wartime alliances, Britain issued a new commitment in Palestine.
Balfour Declaration: A British statement issued on 2 November 1917 declaring support for “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people,” provided it did not prejudice existing non-Jewish communities.
Content and Purpose
Sent as a letter from Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community.
Facsimile of the Balfour Declaration letter (2 November 1917) expressing British support for “a national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, with provisos on existing communities. This primary document underpinned later mandate policy and intensifying debate over Palestine’s future. Source
Expressed support for Zionist aspirations while attempting to balance the rights of Arab inhabitants.
Britain hoped the declaration would:
Secure Jewish support in the USA and Russia.
Strengthen Britain’s position in Palestine, a region critical for imperial communications.
Undermine Ottoman and German influence.
Impact
Encouraged Zionist immigration and settlement, laying the foundation for future conflict.
Deepened Arab resentment, as it appeared incompatible with promises made to Hussein.
Set the stage for British mandate control and later disputes over Palestine’s future.
Peace Settlements and Implementation (1919–1923)
San Remo Conference and Mandates
After the war, the Paris Peace Conference (1919) and San Remo Conference (1920) formalised new arrangements.
UK government 1921 map used in cabinet deliberations, showing the British-administered territories (e.g., Mesopotamia and Palestine/Transjordan) within the former Ottoman domains. Useful for locating places referenced in the mandate allocations agreed at Paris and San Remo. Extra detail includes broader Arabian geography not discussed in the syllabus but aids orientation. Source
Rather than full independence, former Ottoman lands became mandates under the League of Nations.
Mandate System: A League of Nations framework assigning former Ottoman and German territories to victorious powers for administration until self-government was deemed possible.
Key Outcomes
Britain: Mandates over Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq.
France: Mandates over Syria and Lebanon.
The mandates institutionalised much of the Sykes–Picot division, albeit with modifications.
The Hussein–McMahon promise of Arab independence was largely unfulfilled, except for limited Hashemite rule in Transjordan and Iraq.
Consequences for Regional Politics
Arab disappointment over betrayed expectations fuelled nationalist movements and anti-imperial sentiment.
The Balfour Declaration became central to the emerging Arab–Zionist conflict, as Jewish immigration increased under British mandate policies.
Britain’s balancing act between Zionist and Arab demands became increasingly untenable, culminating in tensions that shaped the later Arab–Israeli conflict.
Contradictions and Legacy
The overlapping and conflicting promises of the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, Sykes–Picot Agreement, and Balfour Declaration reflected Britain’s shifting priorities during wartime:
Strategic control of the Middle East outweighed commitments to local populations.
Imperialist rivalries between Britain and France shaped the region’s borders.
Arab nationalism, born from wartime promises, clashed with European designs and Zionist aspirations.
The partition plans of the First World War created the modern Middle East map, but also sowed the seeds of enduring conflict. Their legacy continued to influence regional politics throughout the twentieth century and beyond.
FAQ
Russia was initially a party to the negotiations and expected control over Istanbul and the Turkish Straits. However, the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution led to Russia’s withdrawal from the war and rejection of imperialist agreements.
The new Soviet government published the secret Sykes–Picot terms, exposing Britain and France’s imperial ambitions. This revelation damaged Allied credibility, especially among Arab leaders who had been promised independence, and heightened distrust of European intentions in the region.
Hussein’s sons became central to Britain’s post-war mandate strategy, partly fulfilling promises of Arab rule:
Faisal led Arab forces alongside T.E. Lawrence during the revolt and briefly ruled Syria before being installed as King of Iraq under a British mandate.
Abdullah became Emir of Transjordan, ruling under British supervision.
These placements were compromises that gave the Hashemites authority but fell short of the pan-Arab independence Hussein had envisioned.
Palestine was recognised as a region of unique religious and strategic significance for Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.
Britain and France agreed neither should control it unilaterally, proposing instead an international administration to manage competing claims.
This clause also reflected uncertainty about Palestine’s future amid Zionist aspirations, Arab expectations, and broader Allied goals — although the 1917 Balfour Declaration would soon reshape British priorities there.
The declaration was intended partly to strengthen Allied unity and encourage Jewish support internationally.
Britain hoped to sway American Jewish opinion, aiding US commitment to the war.
It sought to encourage Jewish support in Russia, hoping to keep Russia in the conflict.
Although not all aims succeeded, the declaration raised Britain’s diplomatic profile and shaped Zionist lobbying at the Paris Peace Conference, influencing mandate terms and future negotiations over Palestine.
Arab leaders, particularly Sharif Hussein and his allies, believed British promises implied full independence for most Arab lands liberated from Ottoman control.
When mandates were imposed and European powers retained control, they viewed this as a betrayal.
This perception fuelled Arab nationalist movements, revolts in Syria and Iraq, and lasting hostility towards British and French authority — shaping Middle Eastern political dynamics throughout the interwar period.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the main aim of the Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying that it was a secret wartime agreement between Britain and France (and Russia initially involved).
1 mark for explaining that its aim was to divide the Ottoman Empire’s Middle Eastern territories into spheres of influence for Britain and France after the First World War.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how British wartime promises during 1915–1917 created tensions in the Middle East after the First World War.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 6 marks based on the depth and accuracy of explanation:
1 mark: Reference to the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence and its promise of Arab independence in exchange for revolt.
1 mark: Explanation of how ambiguous territorial definitions in this correspondence caused later disputes.
1 mark: Description of the Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916) as a secret plan dividing Ottoman lands into British and French zones, contradicting promises to the Arabs.
1 mark: Explanation of how the revelation of Sykes–Picot in 1917 angered Arab leaders and undermined trust.
1 mark: Reference to the Balfour Declaration (1917) promising a Jewish national home in Palestine, conflicting with Arab expectations of independence.
1 mark: Explanation of how these contradictory promises fuelled Arab nationalism and long-term tensions over Palestine and mandate rule.
