58.5.6 World War II, Biltmore Declaration and 1948 Withdrawal

OCR Specification focus:
‘The Second World War and the Biltmore Declaration precipitated British withdrawal from Palestine in 1948.’

The Second World War transformed British imperial policy in the Middle East. Shifting international dynamics, Zionist activism, and the Biltmore Declaration all drove Britain’s 1948 withdrawal.

Britain, the Second World War and the Middle East

Strategic Importance and Wartime Priorities

During World War II (1939–1945), the Middle East became strategically vital for Britain. It provided access to vital oil supplies, key routes to India and the Far East, and a base for military operations against Axis powers. British control over Egypt, Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan was essential to maintaining imperial power and safeguarding maritime trade routes through the Suez Canal.

The war placed significant strain on British resources. Fighting in North Africa against Rommel’s Afrika Korps, defending the Suez Canal, and maintaining stability across the region demanded immense military and financial commitment. As Britain weakened economically and militarily, sustaining direct imperial control became increasingly difficult.

Jewish Refugees and the Holocaust

The rise of Nazi antisemitism and the Holocaust profoundly altered attitudes toward Zionism and the question of a Jewish homeland. Millions of Jews were displaced or murdered, creating international sympathy for Jewish refugees seeking settlement in Palestine. However, British restrictions on Jewish immigration under the 1939 White Paper — which limited immigration to 75,000 over five years — were resented by Zionists, particularly as European Jews desperately sought refuge.

Britain’s refusal to lift immigration limits during the Holocaust caused deep moral and political criticism. Zionist organisations used this to intensify their campaign for a Jewish state, arguing that only sovereignty could guarantee Jewish safety.

The Biltmore Declaration and Zionist Strategy

The Biltmore Conference, 1942

The Biltmore Declaration (1942) was a turning point in Zionist policy. Held in New York during the height of the war, Zionist leaders from across the world, including Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion, adopted a far more assertive stance.

Biltmore Declaration: A 1942 statement by Zionist leaders calling for the establishment of Palestine as a Jewish Commonwealth, marking a decisive shift from seeking immigration rights to demanding statehood.

The declaration demanded:

Unlimited Jewish immigration to Palestine.
The creation of Palestine as a Jewish Commonwealth.
Full support from the United States and other Allied powers for Zionist goals.

This marked a significant departure from earlier Zionist strategies centred on negotiation with Britain. It also highlighted the growing influence of American Zionism, as Britain’s wartime dependence on U.S. support made Washington’s policies more consequential.

Ben-Gurion and Strategic Realignment

David Ben-Gurion, head of the Jewish Agency, embraced a dual strategy during the war: supporting Britain militarily against the Axis while preparing to oppose British rule in Palestine afterward. Zionist militias like the Haganah aided the Allies, building organisational and military experience that would later underpin the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).

The Jewish Agency also intensified diplomatic lobbying in Washington, aligning with rising American global influence and bypassing British authority. This shift laid the groundwork for future U.S. support for Israel’s creation.

Post-War Pressures and Britain’s Imperial Decline

Britain’s Weakened Position After 1945

By the war’s end, Britain faced enormous debt, a collapsing empire, and mounting anti-colonial movements. The cost of maintaining its mandate in Palestine, amid escalating Jewish–Arab violence, became politically and financially unsustainable. British troops were increasingly targeted by Irgun and Lehi, militant Zionist groups waging guerrilla campaigns against British authority.

Arab resistance also intensified, with leaders in Egypt, Transjordan, and Iraq warning Britain that continued Zionist immigration could destabilise the entire region. Britain found itself caught between Zionist demands for statehood and Arab opposition to partition.

Anglo-American Tensions

The United States, under President Harry Truman, emerged as the dominant Western power after 1945 and exerted pressure on Britain to facilitate Jewish immigration. Truman, influenced by humanitarian concerns and domestic political considerations, supported the admission of 100,000 Jewish refugees into Palestine. Britain, fearing Arab backlash and loss of strategic oil supplies, resisted, creating transatlantic tensions.

This shift illustrated the decline of British influence in Middle Eastern affairs. The United States began to assume the leadership role in shaping the region’s post-war order, particularly on the question of a Jewish state.

From Mandate Crisis to British Withdrawal

The UNSCOP and UN Partition Plan

Unable to resolve the escalating conflict, Britain referred the Palestine question to the United Nations in 1947. The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommended partitioning the territory into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international control. Despite Arab rejection, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 in November 1947.

UN Partition Plan for Palestine (1947) showing proposed Jewish and Arab states and the corpus separatum for Jerusalem. The diagram clarifies the geographic logic behind Resolution 181 that followed UNSCOP’s recommendations. It includes territorial detail beyond the notes (e.g., district labelling), which is helpful but not required by the syllabus. Source

Violence intensified immediately, with civil war breaking out between Jewish and Arab communities. Britain, unwilling to act as a referee in an intractable conflict, accelerated plans to end its mandate.

The End of the Mandate in 1948

Britain announced its intention to withdraw from Palestine by 14 May 1948. On that day, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the State of Israel, fulfilling the Zionist vision first formalised in the Biltmore Declaration.

David Ben-Gurion reads Israel’s Declaration of Independence in Tel Aviv on 14 May 1948, hours before the Mandate ended at midnight. This moment connects the wartime shift in Zionist strategy (Biltmore) to post-war diplomacy and Britain’s withdrawal. The scene includes background details (e.g., portraits, flags) that are not required by the syllabus but aid contextual understanding. Source

British forces departed without transferring authority to either Jews or Arabs, leaving the region on the brink of war.

Arab states — including Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq — immediately invaded, launching the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949). Britain, while officially neutral, continued to wield influence through its treaty relationships, particularly with Transjordan under King Abdullah.

Significance of the Biltmore Declaration and British Withdrawal

The Biltmore Declaration marked the ideological transformation of Zionism from a movement seeking immigration and settlement rights under British rule to one demanding full sovereignty. It reflected the shift of Zionist strategy from London to Washington and the growing importance of U.S. support.

World War II irreversibly weakened Britain’s imperial capacity, exposed the limits of its mandate system, and transformed global attitudes toward Jewish statehood. Britain’s withdrawal in 1948 was the culmination of wartime pressures, Zionist political success, international sympathy for Jewish suffering, and Britain’s declining global power. It reshaped the Middle East, inaugurating a new era of Arab–Israeli conflict and superpower involvement that would define the region’s modern history.

FAQ

Public opinion in Britain became increasingly divided and critical of continued involvement in Palestine. Many questioned the cost and morality of maintaining the mandate amid escalating violence.

Reports of British soldiers being targeted by Zionist militant groups such as Irgun and Lehi shocked the public and eroded support for the mandate. At the same time, sympathy for Jewish Holocaust survivors encouraged many Britons to favour a solution allowing greater Jewish immigration.

This domestic pressure, combined with economic hardship and post-war reconstruction priorities, contributed to the government’s decision to refer the issue to the United Nations and end the mandate.

Jewish paramilitary groups significantly increased pressure on Britain during the final years of the mandate.

Irgun and Lehi used violent tactics, including bombings and assassinations, to undermine British authority.
The Haganah, though more moderate, coordinated illegal immigration operations and occasionally cooperated with more radical groups in actions against British targets.

Incidents like the King David Hotel bombing (1946), which killed British officials and soldiers, drew global attention and demonstrated Britain’s diminishing control. The escalating insurgency made continued occupation politically and militarily untenable, hastening the decision to withdraw.

American policy shifted decisively in favour of Zionist aims after 1945, placing Britain under increasing diplomatic pressure.

President Harry Truman advocated for the immediate admission of 100,000 Jewish refugees into Palestine, reflecting humanitarian concerns and domestic political pressures from pro-Zionist groups.

Britain, reliant on U.S. economic aid through initiatives like the Marshall Plan, struggled to ignore American demands. The divergence in British and American approaches weakened London’s authority and reinforced the sense that the Palestine issue required an international solution, leading Britain to refer the matter to the United Nations.

Jerusalem’s religious and historical significance to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam made its status one of the most contentious issues in the partition debate.

The UNSCOP proposed placing Jerusalem under international administration — known as a corpus separatum — to prevent conflict over its control and ensure access to holy sites for all faiths.

This plan aimed to avoid further escalation between Jews and Arabs, who both claimed sovereignty over the city. While neither side fully accepted this compromise, it reflected attempts to balance competing national and religious claims within the partition framework.

British forces completed their withdrawal from Palestine on 14 May 1948, leaving without transferring authority to either side.

Most officials and soldiers redeployed to other parts of the shrinking empire, such as Egypt, Jordan, and Cyprus, while some were demobilised as Britain scaled back its overseas commitments.

The abrupt departure created a power vacuum, intensifying the violence between Jewish and Arab forces. This vacuum directly contributed to the outbreak of the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949) immediately after the British mandate ended.

Practice Questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the Biltmore Declaration (1942) and why was it significant in the context of Zionist aims?

Mark scheme:

1 mark for identifying that the Biltmore Declaration was a statement made by Zionist leaders in 1942 calling for the establishment of Palestine as a Jewish Commonwealth.
1 mark for explaining its significance, such as noting that it marked a shift from seeking immigration rights under British rule to demanding full statehood, or that it increased the role of the United States in Zionist diplomacy.

Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the events of the Second World War and the Biltmore Declaration contributed to Britain’s decision to withdraw from Palestine in 1948.