OCR Specification focus:
‘German nationalism’s origins and growth from 1789; Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna reshaped identities.’
The origins of German nationalism trace back to the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, when revolutionary change and Napoleonic domination catalysed new political, cultural, and social identities.
The French Revolution and Early Nationalism
The French Revolution of 1789 sent shockwaves across Europe, disrupting established monarchies and hierarchies. In the fragmented German states, it stirred both admiration and fear.
A labelled map of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, highlighting the political fragmentation that preceded revolutionary and Napoleonic change. The multiplicity of states explains the weak central authority and the later appeal of unity. Source
Influence of Revolutionary Principles
The revolution encouraged debate among German intellectuals regarding popular sovereignty and representation.
Middle-class professionals, students, and writers were especially receptive to French notions of citizenship and national self-determination.
At the same time, conservative elites feared the potential loss of traditional privileges, strengthening opposition to revolutionary ideals.
Citizenship: The recognition of individuals as members of a state, possessing rights and responsibilities within that political community.
While initial responses were mixed, the French Revolution planted seeds of nationalism by inspiring people to imagine a political entity beyond dynastic rule.
The Napoleonic Impact
The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte dramatically reshaped the German lands. After his victories over Austria and Prussia, Napoleon imposed sweeping political and territorial changes.
Political Restructuring
In 1806, Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, which had been a loose confederation of more than 300 entities.
He established the Confederation of the Rhine, reducing the number of German states to around 39.
Map of the Confederation of the Rhine (1812), with member states clearly delineated. Napoleon’s reorganisation streamlined the German political map, showing how French hegemony reshaped governance and identity. Source
Traditional rulers were displaced, and new administrative systems introduced, modernising governance in several areas.
Holy Roman Empire: A decentralised political structure in Central Europe, existing from the Middle Ages until 1806, encompassing numerous duchies, principalities, and free cities.
This centralisation encouraged Germans to consider unity as both possible and desirable, laying the groundwork for nationalism.
Social and Cultural Changes
The Napoleonic occupation introduced reforms such as the Napoleonic Code, which promoted legal equality and property rights.
Reforms weakened feudal privileges and fostered middle-class advancement.
At the same time, resentment grew against French dominance, taxation, and conscription, fuelling anti-French feeling.
The tension between admiration for reform and resentment of foreign rule stimulated a stronger sense of distinct German identity.
Intellectual Forces and Romanticism
German thinkers and writers played a crucial role in shaping nationalist thought during and after the Napoleonic period.
Key Figures
Johann Gottlieb Fichte: His Addresses to the German Nation (1808) argued for a spiritual and cultural unity of Germans, emphasising shared language and traditions.
Johann Gottfried Herder: Advocated the importance of the Volksgeist (national spirit), claiming that each nation possessed unique cultural characteristics expressed through language, folklore, and history.
Volksgeist: The unique spirit or cultural essence of a people, reflected in their traditions, language, and shared historical experience.
Romantic Nationalism
Romantic intellectuals glorified medieval German history and folk culture.
The use of language, myths, and songs as tools of unity became central to nationalist discourse.
Intellectual circles contrasted German authenticity with what they saw as foreign, especially French, materialism and rationalism.
The Congress of Vienna and the German Confederation
Napoleon’s defeat in 1815 led to the Congress of Vienna, where the victors sought to restore order and prevent revolutionary upheaval.
Political Settlements
The German states were reorganised into the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose association of 39 states under Austrian leadership.
The Confederation lacked real central authority but served as a framework for cooperation in defence and law.
Austria and Prussia emerged as the dominant powers, shaping future debates on German unity.
Impact on National Identity
Many nationalists felt betrayed, as hopes for a unified, liberal Germany were ignored.
The confederation reinforced regional divisions, yet the idea of unity persisted.
Suppression of liberal and nationalist movements by Austria’s Prince Metternich through censorship and repression only strengthened the determination of some groups to push for reform.
Growth of German National Consciousness
The interplay of French revolutionary ideals, Napoleonic restructuring, and the post-Vienna order accelerated the emergence of German nationalism.
Key Developments
The War of Liberation (1813–1814), in which German volunteers fought against Napoleon, gave nationalism a strong patriotic and military dimension.
Shared resentment of French occupation fostered collective solidarity.
The cultural revival, led by intellectuals and romanticists, emphasised unity through shared traditions and history.
Long-Term Effects
By 1819, student associations such as the Burschenschaften openly promoted nationalist and liberal causes.
Nationalist sentiments remained divided: some looked to Prussia for leadership, others emphasised Austrian involvement, foreshadowing later debates between Kleindeutsch and Grossdeutsch solutions.
Though nationalism was still limited to elites and intellectual circles, its appeal was growing steadily.
The Origins
From 1789 to 1815, German nationalism’s origins were shaped by a complex interaction of foreign domination, revolutionary principles, and cultural revival. The dismantling of the Holy Roman Empire, Napoleonic reforms, and the settlement of the Congress of Vienna redefined German political life. More importantly, they reshaped how Germans perceived their collective identity, laying essential foundations for the debates and struggles that followed throughout the nineteenth century.
FAQ
Napoleon’s campaigns brought significant disruption. Villages and towns were often requisitioned for supplies, lodging, and food for French troops. Heavy taxation and conscription caused hardship, especially in rural areas.
However, some regions benefited from administrative modernisation, such as improved record-keeping, abolition of feudal dues, and more consistent legal processes. These changes were uneven, often leaving resentment at both the burdens of occupation and the selective reforms.
German universities became hotbeds of intellectual debate. Students and professors, influenced by revolutionary ideas and later by Napoleon’s domination, discussed identity and political reform.
Universities such as Jena and Heidelberg were centres for Romantic thought.
Student societies began to form, laying the foundations for the Burschenschaften after 1815.
Ideas of shared culture, language, and history circulated widely among young elites.
Several rulers saw advantages in aligning with Napoleon. By joining the Confederation of the Rhine, they gained:
Greater independence from Austria.
Territorial rewards and elevation in status, e.g., some became kings.
Access to French military protection.
This pragmatic collaboration often alienated subjects, who viewed their rulers as complicit in foreign domination.
Delivered in 1808 in French-occupied Berlin, Fichte’s lectures directly addressed the humiliation of foreign control. He called for renewal through education, culture, and moral unity.
His vision stressed that Germans shared a unique language and spiritual essence, contrasting with French rationalism. This emphasis on cultural distinctiveness gave intellectual form to growing resentment of Napoleonic rule.
Nationalists had hoped that the Congress would establish a unified or at least more centralised Germany. Instead, the settlement prioritised balance of power and conservative stability.
The German Confederation remained weak, dominated by Austria.
Aspirations for liberal constitutions and representative government were ignored.
Censorship and surveillance increased, curbing open nationalist discussion.
This disappointment deepened the sense that nationalism would have to be achieved through struggle rather than diplomacy.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two ways in which Napoleon reshaped the German states after 1806.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each accurate point, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers:Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (1).
Creation of the Confederation of the Rhine (1).
Reduction of German states to around 39 (1).
Introduction of administrative and legal reforms, including elements of the Napoleonic Code (1).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the French Revolution and Napoleonic rule contributed to the development of German nationalism between 1789 and 1815.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Limited knowledge; general statements about change in Germany with little or no specific reference to nationalism. Example: “The French Revolution influenced Germany a lot.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some accurate knowledge shown with limited explanation. For example: Notes that revolutionary ideals such as liberty and equality inspired German intellectuals and that Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, but offers little analysis of how this fostered nationalism.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear and accurate knowledge with developed explanation directly linking French and Napoleonic influence to nationalism. For example: Explains that revolutionary ideals encouraged debates about citizenship and identity, that Napoleon’s restructuring (dissolution of the Empire, creation of the Confederation of the Rhine) made unity seem more achievable, and that resentment of French dominance strengthened German identity. May include reference to cultural revival through intellectuals like Fichte and Herder.
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