OCR Specification focus:
‘Mass nationalism’s appeal widened across the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.’
Mass nationalism in nineteenth-century Germany transformed cultural identity and political life by drawing new social groups into movements that promoted unity, power, and belonging.
Early Developments in Mass Nationalism
The growth of mass nationalism in the German lands was rooted in the spread of literacy, education, and shared cultural experiences. This went beyond elite circles of intellectuals and politicians, reaching ordinary citizens. Schools, newspapers, and pamphlets popularised nationalist ideas.
Oil painting of a Berlin reading café where patrons share periodicals and newspapers, exemplifying the communications revolution underpinning mass politics. It highlights how literacy, cheap print, and public reading spaces broadened access to nationalist discourse. The visible royal portrait and male-only clientele also hint at censorship and gender norms; these contextual details exceed the syllabus emphasis but aid interpretation. Source
Importantly, festivals and public events enabled citizens to experience national identity collectively, embedding nationalism into daily life.
The Role of Festivals and Symbols
Public festivals, anniversaries, and commemorations were powerful tools for mobilising the masses. For example:
The Wartburg Festival (1817) celebrated the Reformation and German unity, symbolically linking religion and nationhood.
The Hambach Festival (1832) gathered thousands waving black-red-gold flags, fostering a sense of common identity.
Procession to Hambach Castle during the 1832 festival, with black-red-gold banners associated with democratic German unity. The image captures mass participation across social groups and the emotive power of symbols. It aligns with the syllabus focus on how public festivals popularised nationalism; minor artistic stylisation reflects the source medium. Source
Statues, monuments, and memorials served as visible symbols of a shared past and future.
These symbols helped ordinary people engage emotionally with abstract ideas of unity and independence.
Social Groups and Nationalism’s Appeal
Mass nationalism drew support from varied sections of society. Each group found in it a way to express aspirations or frustrations.
The Middle Classes
The bourgeoisie were central to the spread of nationalism. They linked national unity with demands for:
Political reform
Constitutional rights
Greater participation in government
Their enthusiasm for newspapers, clubs, and debating societies spread nationalist thought widely.
The Working Classes
Industrialisation and urbanisation brought workers into closer contact with nationalist politics. For many, nationalism offered:
Economic hope, promising protection of jobs through tariffs.
Social recognition, elevating their role in shaping the nation.
Although socialism became a rival ideology, aspects of nationalist rhetoric overlapped with workers’ grievances, making the nation a framework for solidarity.
The Peasantry
The peasantry’s involvement was slower but significant. In rural areas, nationalism was spread by:
Church sermons, often connecting religion to national destiny.
Military service, which instilled loyalty to broader German institutions.
Thus, even traditionally conservative groups became linked to national identity.
Religion and Nationalism
Religion shaped both unity and division. Protestantism often aligned closely with nationalism, especially in Prussia, where it reinforced loyalty to the state. Catholicism, however, could complicate nationalism. Many Catholics viewed nationalism as a Protestant or Prussian project, though movements like the Catholic Centre Party later tied faith and nation together.
Kulturkampf: The conflict in the 1870s between the Prussian-dominated German state and the Catholic Church over authority, education, and loyalty.
This struggle illustrates how religion could intensify both mass participation and resistance to nationalism.
The Influence of the Press and Communication
The nineteenth century witnessed a communications revolution that expanded the reach of nationalism.
The rapid spread of printing presses and growth of the press made nationalist ideas more accessible.
Cheap pamphlets and newspapers circulated widely, shaping public opinion.
The telegraph and railways allowed news, symbols, and slogans to spread rapidly, binding regions together.
High-resolution 1849 map of German railways and neighbouring routes, indicating how transport corridors linked cities and regions before political unification. Use it to discuss the infrastructure that enabled rapid circulation of newspapers, ideas, and patriotic iconography. The map includes adjacent countries and some non-rail routes (thin lines for roads), which goes beyond the syllabus focus but does not hinder its instructional value. Source
Nationalist organisations, from student societies to veterans’ groups, relied heavily on this infrastructure to build connections across diverse territories.
Education and National Consciousness
Schools were critical in promoting nationalism to the next generation. State-controlled education increasingly emphasised:
The teaching of a common German language and history.
National heroes such as Arminius (Hermann), the defender of German lands against Rome.
Civic duty and loyalty to the fatherland.
Children grew up viewing themselves as part of a larger nation, not merely members of local communities.
Militarism and National Identity
The army was one of the most powerful vehicles of mass nationalism. Military service:
Created shared experiences across classes and regions.
Reinforced values of discipline, sacrifice, and loyalty.
Provided vivid symbols of power that ordinary people could rally around.
Victories in wars, such as the defeat of Austria (1866) and France (1870–71), inspired national pride and drew more citizens into the nationalist cause.
Gender and Nationalism
Women were increasingly involved in nationalist movements, though often in limited roles. Their participation included:
Raising families with nationalist values, embedding loyalty in domestic life.
Joining cultural associations that promoted patriotic songs, literature, and folklore.
Supporting men through organisation of charity and morale-boosting campaigns during conflicts.
This broadened the reach of nationalism by tying it to family and cultural life.
Radicalisation of Nationalism
By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, nationalism took on more radical forms. Pan-Germanism sought to expand beyond the existing empire, emphasising racial identity and exclusion of minorities. Nationalist appeals became:
More militaristic, glorifying war as a test of strength.
More intolerant, targeting Jews, Poles, and other groups as “outsiders.”
More imperialist, linking national prestige to colonies and global power.
Mass organisations, such as the Pan-German League, promoted these ideas widely, showing how nationalism could turn divisive as well as unifying.
The Broader Appeal of Nationalism
Ultimately, mass nationalism appealed because it touched many aspects of life:
It promised unity across fragmented states.
It connected economic hopes with political change.
It gave emotional meaning through symbols, rituals, and heroes.
It became tied to military success and pride.
By the early twentieth century, mass nationalism was no longer the preserve of intellectual elites; it had become an everyday force shaping identities, expectations, and loyalties across German society.
FAQ
Music and literature provided accessible cultural expressions of national identity. Composers like Richard Wagner embedded German myths and legends into operas, linking art with patriotic sentiment.
Literary works, especially poetry and novels, often idealised German history and folklore, offering readers and audiences a sense of pride in their heritage.
Public performances and book clubs made these works widely available, ensuring even those outside political spheres engaged emotionally with nationalism.
The colours were first popularised by the student fraternities (Burschenschaften) after the Napoleonic Wars. They symbolised freedom and unity against foreign domination.
At events like the Wartburg and Hambach Festivals, black-red-gold flags were flown to represent aspirations for a liberal, unified Germany.
Over time, these colours became strongly associated with national movements, serving as an enduring visual shorthand for German unity and democracy.
Veterans of the Napoleonic Wars formed associations that celebrated shared sacrifice and loyalty to the fatherland.
These groups organised parades, commemorations, and social gatherings, providing ordinary citizens with visible examples of national service.
By linking personal pride in military service to collective national identity, veterans’ groups encouraged broader participation in nationalist causes across classes and regions.
Although women engaged in cultural and charitable aspects of nationalist movements, political participation was generally restricted.
Women were expected to influence nationalism indirectly through family life:
Teaching children patriotic songs and stories
Supporting men’s political activity through domestic and moral encouragement
Direct involvement in clubs or political debate was rare, reinforcing gender hierarchies while still linking women to nationalist causes.
Mass nationalism often defined belonging by excluding minorities.
Religious exclusion: Catholics and Jews were sometimes portrayed as less loyal to the German nation.
Ethnic exclusion: Poles, Danes, and other minorities were viewed as outsiders, undermining claims of a unified identity.
Radical Pan-Germanism: By the late nineteenth century, nationalist movements increasingly embraced racial definitions of identity, narrowing the appeal of nationalism to an exclusive vision of Germanness.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two ways in which festivals such as the Hambach Festival (1832) contributed to the appeal of German nationalism.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each valid identification (maximum 2).
Examples that gain credit:
• Use of black-red-gold flags created powerful nationalist symbols (1 mark).
• Brought large crowds together, giving people a shared experience of unity (1 mark).
• Linked nationalism to cultural and political demands in a public setting (1 mark).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the growth of mass communication, including newspapers and railways, was important in widening the appeal of German nationalism in the nineteenth century.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic answers with simple or general points. May mention one factor but with limited explanation.
Examples:
• Newspapers spread nationalist ideas (1 mark).
• Railways connected regions (1 mark).
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Clearer explanation with some development, showing how communication affected the spread of nationalism.
Examples:
• Newspapers and cheap pamphlets allowed ordinary people to read about national ideas, which helped spread nationalist thinking beyond the educated elite (2 marks).
• Railways allowed faster distribution of newspapers and ideas across German states, helping to unify regional populations in a shared discourse (2 marks).
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Detailed explanation with well-developed examples, directly linking communication to the widening appeal of nationalism.
Examples:
• The rise of newspapers and periodicals created a ‘mass reading public’ that spread nationalist messages, symbols, and debates to broader sections of society, increasing participation (3 marks).
• Railways and the telegraph reduced barriers between regions, ensuring that national events, symbols, and propaganda reached people quickly, fostering a sense of belonging and integration across fragmented states (3 marks).
• Answers that include both press and transport developments and explain their significance will reach the top of the level.
