51.1.6 War and Defeat

OCR Specification focus:
‘The First World War and defeat transformed national identity, legitimacy and expectations.’

The First World War was a seismic turning point for German nationalism. Defeat in 1918 shattered imperial legitimacy, altered collective identity, and reshaped political expectations across Germany.

The First World War and German Nationalism

Early War Optimism

At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, national enthusiasm was widespread. The so-called “Spirit of 1914” suggested that divisions between social classes and political factions were temporarily overcome by patriotic unity. Intellectuals, students, and workers alike were drawn into mass mobilisation, giving nationalism an unprecedented breadth of support.

However, this unity was fragile. As the war dragged on and hardship deepened, national solidarity gave way to division, radicalism, and disillusionment.

Total War and Social Strain

The war became a total war, meaning it demanded complete mobilisation of economic, military, and human resources.

Total War: A form of conflict in which all of a nation’s resources—military, economic, and civilian—are directed towards the war effort, blurring the line between front and home front.

Germany’s Hindenburg Programme of 1916 sought to maximise industrial production and manpower. Yet food shortages, inflation, and military conscription strained society. Civilian suffering weakened confidence in the imperial regime’s legitimacy, creating fertile ground for radical nationalist and socialist movements.

Rationing, the Turnip Winter (1916–17) and chronic shortages eroded morale and framed defeat as the outcome of a grinding ‘war of exhaustion’ on the home front.

Bavarian bread-ration stamps from the First World War exemplify civilian mobilisation and controlled consumption under blockade and scarcity. Such artifacts illuminate daily constraints shaping public opinion by 1918. The image includes date and weights beyond the syllabus detail but reinforces the scale of rationing. Source

Political Transformation during Wartime

The war altered the political landscape. Initially dominated by military leadership under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, politics shifted as discontent grew:

The Reichstag Peace Resolution of 1917 demonstrated parliament’s attempt to assert itself, calling for peace without annexations.
The Social Democratic Party (SPD) gained influence as anti-war sentiment rose.
Nationalist groups, however, pushed for Annexationist aims, insisting on territorial expansion to secure Germany’s power.

These competing visions fractured national identity and exposed deep ideological divides.

Defeat and National Identity

Military Collapse and Armistice

By autumn 1918, Germany faced military defeat. The failure of the Spring Offensive and Allied advances, coupled with the exhaustion of German forces, forced the government to seek an armistice.

On 11 November 1918, Germany agreed an armistice at Compiègne, ending fighting but inaugurating disputes over responsibility and legitimacy.

Marshal Foch’s special train departs Rethondes on 11 November 1918, after the armistice ending hostilities on the Western Front was agreed. The Compiègne setting became a potent symbol of German defeat and Allied leverage. The image foregrounds the material locus of surrender rather than negotiations themselves. Source

The armistice of November 1918 was perceived not simply as a military setback but as a national humiliation. Many Germans struggled to reconcile patriotic pride with the reality of defeat.

The “Stab-in-the-Back” Myth

A crucial consequence of defeat was the emergence of the Dolchstoßlegende or “stab-in-the-back” myth.

Stab-in-the-Back Myth: The belief that Germany’s military had not truly been defeated in the field but had been betrayed by internal enemies—politicians, socialists, and Jews.

This narrative was cultivated by military leaders to deflect blame and delegitimise the new Weimar Republic. It deeply influenced nationalist identity, feeding extremism on the political right.

Abdication and the End of the Kaiserreich

In November 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, ending the Hohenzollern monarchy. This abrupt shift symbolised the collapse of imperial legitimacy. For many, the monarchy had embodied national unity; its fall left a vacuum that radical movements sought to fill.

On 9 November 1918, as the Kaiser abdicated, Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a German Republic from the Reichstag balcony.

A National Library of Scotland photograph shows the crowd outside the Reichstag as Philipp Scheidemann announces the Republic on 9 November 1918. The scene connects military collapse to constitutional change and contested authority. This complements discussion of how defeat reshaped expectations of the state. Source

The proclamation of the republic on 9 November 1918 represented both new democratic possibilities and profound national uncertainty.

Transformation of National Legitimacy

Delegitimisation of Old Authority

The defeat discredited the imperial government and the Prussian-dominated system that had previously been seen as the backbone of German nationalism. Traditional elites lost credibility, particularly as they attempted to distance themselves from responsibility for the defeat.

Challenges to the Weimar Republic

The new Weimar Republic inherited responsibility for defeat and the harsh Treaty of Versailles (1919). This association undermined its legitimacy from the outset. Nationalists branded it the “November Criminals” regime, accusing its leaders of betraying Germany.

Thus, while old authority was discredited, new authority was fragile, producing a crisis of national legitimacy.

Transformation of National Expectations

Social Expectations

Defeat reshaped Germans’ expectations of the nation’s future:

Workers anticipated greater political rights and social reforms.
Soldiers and veterans demanded recognition, fostering groups such as the Freikorps, who promoted militarised nationalism.
Conservatives hoped for national revival through rejection of democratic institutions.

Political Expectations

The collapse of imperial authority created space for competing political ideologies:

Democratic nationalists envisioned a more representative Germany aligned with liberal principles.
Radical right-wing nationalists demanded revenge and restoration of German greatness.
Socialists and communists sought a more egalitarian Germany inspired by the Russian Revolution.

These expectations conflicted, but all reflected the reality that Germany could never return to pre-war political norms.

Cultural and Psychological Effects

The trauma of war and defeat produced a culture of collective disillusionment. National identity was increasingly defined through a sense of loss, grievance, and a desire for renewal. The belief that Germany had been unjustly treated and still deserved greatness remained a central theme of nationalism in the post-war period.

FAQ

The Allied blockade restricted Germany’s access to food, raw materials, and fuel throughout the war. By 1918, shortages had crippled the economy and undermined morale.

Malnutrition, disease, and falling productivity weakened both civilian resolve and military strength. The blockade directly contributed to the perception that the home front had collapsed, making continued resistance impossible.

The Spring Offensive of 1918 was Germany’s last attempt to break the stalemate. Initial advances faltered due to overextended supply lines and exhaustion.

Once American troops arrived in large numbers, the Allies regained the initiative. The failure marked the end of German hopes for victory and made armistice negotiations inevitable.

In late 1918, sailors at Kiel refused orders to launch a final, desperate attack on the British fleet. The mutiny spread rapidly, inspiring strikes and uprisings across Germany.

Workers’ and soldiers’ councils formed in major cities.
The unrest revealed that the state no longer controlled its armed forces.
The mutinies directly accelerated the Kaiser’s abdication and the proclamation of the republic.

Many ex-soldiers felt betrayed by the armistice and struggled to reintegrate into civilian life. Veterans’ bitterness fuelled paramilitary organisations like the Freikorps.

These groups glorified wartime comradeship and sought to defend Germany against socialism and perceived enemies. Their existence normalised political violence and gave radical nationalists a ready military force.

Germany shifted from a leading continental power to a diplomatically isolated state. The defeat ended ambitions of territorial expansion and global influence.

Foreign perceptions of Germany changed: it was viewed as responsible for the war and subject to punitive terms at Versailles. Defeat also encouraged neighbouring countries to resist German influence, reshaping central European politics.

Practice Questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the Dolchstoßlegende (“stab-in-the-back myth”) and why was it significant after Germany’s defeat in 1918?

Mark scheme:

1 mark for identifying what the Dolchstoßlegende was (e.g. the belief that Germany’s army had been betrayed by internal enemies such as socialists or Jews).
1 mark for explaining its significance (e.g. it undermined the Weimar Republic and fuelled right-wing nationalist movements).

Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how Germany’s defeat in the First World War transformed ideas of national legitimacy.