OCR Specification focus:
‘The 1848/1849 revolutions and the Frankfurt Parliament fostered debate, participation and constitutional experiments.’
The revolutions of 1848–1849 and the Frankfurt Parliament marked a crucial turning point in German history, highlighting tensions, aspirations, and experiments in liberal nationalism.
Background to the Revolutions
The European Context
The Revolutions of 1848 were part of a wider wave across Europe, fuelled by political liberalism, economic hardship, and growing demands for national identity. In the German lands, intellectuals, students, and the middle classes pushed for reform, while workers and peasants expressed frustration over economic inequality and social injustice.
Catalysts for Change
Key triggers included:
Economic crises of the 1840s, particularly the “Hungry Forties” caused by crop failures and rising food prices.
Rising demands for freedom of the press and broader political representation.
The influence of Romantic nationalism, which idealised a shared German culture and destiny.
The 1848 Revolutions in the German States
Initial Outbreak
Revolts erupted in March 1848 in cities such as Berlin, Vienna, and Frankfurt.
The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) map showing member states and the broad territorial framework for the 1848–49 upheavals. This clarifies the political geography within which the Frankfurt Parliament sought a constitutional settlement. The map includes detail not strictly required by the syllabus (e.g., smaller member states), but its clarity aids orientation. Source
Responses by Rulers
Many German princes initially granted liberal constitutions to appease protesters.
Conservative elites, however, sought to regain control once revolutionary momentum faltered.
Popular Participation
The revolutions highlighted the diversity of supporters:
Middle-class liberals sought constitutional reform and unity.
Workers and artisans demanded social rights and improved living standards.
Peasants often focused on abolishing feudal burdens rather than nationalist aspirations.
The Frankfurt Parliament
Formation and Aims
The Frankfurt Parliament, convened in May 1848, was Germany’s first attempt at a national representative assembly.
A contemporary coloured lithograph of the opening of the Frankfurt Parliament in Paulskirche, 1848. It shows the presidium and speaker’s platform, with Germania by Philipp Veit behind, and crowded public galleries—highlighting the Parliament’s openness to spectators. The image includes period detail beyond the syllabus (e.g., interior decoration), but these elements aid spatial understanding. Source
Frankfurt Parliament: An elected assembly of delegates from across the German Confederation, tasked with drafting a constitution for a unified Germany.
Its aims included:
Creating a constitutional monarchy with civil liberties.
Establishing a united German state under parliamentary sovereignty.
Debating the model of unification: Kleindeutschland (excluding Austria) or Grossdeutschland (including Austria).
Composition of Delegates
The parliament was dominated by:
Lawyers, academics, and professionals, reflecting middle-class liberal dominance.
Few peasants or workers, highlighting a lack of broad social representation.
Debates and Constitutional Experiments
The Constitution
The Frankfurt Parliament drafted a constitution that:
Established a federal German state.
Guaranteed civil liberties such as freedom of speech and equality before the law.
Proposed a constitutional monarchy with an emperor (Kaiser) chosen by the parliament.
The Crown Question
A central issue was whether the crown should be offered to the King of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, under the Kleindeutschland model.
In 1849, the crown was formally offered.
Friedrich Wilhelm IV refused, declaring he would not accept a crown “from the gutter,” as he rejected parliamentary sovereignty.
An 1891 engraving (published 1893) depicting Eduard Simson leading the Kaiserdeputation that offered the imperial crown to Frederick William IV in Berlin. The scene encapsulates the collision between liberal constitutionalism and divine-right monarchy. As a later illustrative engraving after the event, it includes period staging detail beyond the syllabus but accurately conveys the moment’s significance. Source
Achievements and Failures
Achievements
First attempt at pan-German political representation.
Creation of a draft constitution guaranteeing civil rights.
Encouraged public debate and political participation across classes.
Failures
Lack of military support: the parliament had no army to enforce its will.
Divisions between liberals, radicals, and conservatives weakened unity.
Exclusion of peasants and workers undermined legitimacy.
Reliance on rulers’ goodwill, which was withdrawn as revolutionary fervour declined.
Decline and Collapse
Counter-Revolution
By mid-1849, rulers reasserted control through:
Military repression of uprisings, especially in Dresden and Baden.
Withdrawal of concessions granted in 1848.
Disbandment
The Frankfurt Parliament dissolved in 1849 after failing to implement its constitution. Many delegates fled or faced persecution, marking the end of the revolutionary experiment.
Broader Impact on German Nationalism
Legacy for Nationalism
Despite its failure, the Frankfurt Parliament had enduring significance:
It established a liberal-nationalist agenda that influenced later movements.
It demonstrated the appeal of constitutional governance.
It highlighted the divergence between revolutionary ideals and political realities.
Lessons Learned
The revolutions revealed that:
Popular support was fragmented, limiting the strength of nationalist movements.
Effective unification required state-led initiatives, as seen later under Bismarck.
The tension between liberalism and authoritarianism persisted in German politics.
FAQ
The press was central to spreading revolutionary ideas. Liberal newspapers and pamphlets circulated rapidly thanks to reduced censorship early in 1848.
This enabled discussion of constitutional reform, civil liberties, and nationalism among a wider literate public. Pamphlets were especially influential in rural and small-town areas, where they provided access to debates otherwise confined to urban centres.
Women supported the revolutions by:
Establishing political associations and salons.
Raising funds for revolutionary causes.
Participating in demonstrations and public meetings.
Although women could not become deputies in the Frankfurt Parliament, they often attended debates from the galleries and wrote political commentary. Their involvement reflected broader demands for civic rights, even if not formally recognised.
St Paul’s Church in Frankfurt was chosen because of its symbolic neutrality and large capacity.
Frankfurt was a free city within the German Confederation, making it politically acceptable as a venue. The church interior was remodelled to accommodate deputies, galleries, and public seating, reflecting the Parliament’s aim to be a national and visible assembly.
Rural responses often differed from urban ones. Many peasants were more interested in abolishing feudal dues and land burdens than constitutional debates.
In areas where revolutions promised relief from old obligations, peasants were supportive. However, when promises went unfulfilled, enthusiasm waned, and rural communities were more easily pacified by conservative rulers.
After 1849, many revolutionary leaders and intellectuals fled into exile, particularly to Switzerland, Britain, and the United States.
This “Forty-Eighter” diaspora carried liberal and nationalist ideas abroad, influencing politics in their host countries. Some later returned to Germany, bringing with them international experience and renewed commitment to reform.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did the Frankfurt Parliament first convene, and in which city did it meet?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year 1848.
1 mark for correctly identifying the city Frankfurt (specifically in St Paul’s Church/Paulskirche, but Frankfurt alone is acceptable).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why the Frankfurt Parliament failed to achieve German unification in 1848–1849.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained (maximum 6 marks).
Marks awarded as follows:
1 mark for identifying a valid reason.
1 additional mark for developing the point with supporting detail.
1 further mark for explaining the significance of the reason in relation to the Parliament’s failure.
Indicative content (any two of the following with development and explanation):
Lack of military power: The Parliament had no army of its own to enforce decisions; rulers reasserted authority through force.
Divisions among delegates: Splits between liberals, radicals, and conservatives weakened consensus and slowed progress.
The crown question: Friedrich Wilhelm IV’s refusal to accept the imperial crown undermined the Parliament’s legitimacy.
Social representation: Limited involvement of peasants and workers meant weak popular backing beyond the middle classes.
Reliance on rulers’ goodwill: Once monarchs regained confidence, they withdrew concessions and ignored parliamentary initiatives.
