OCR Specification focus:
‘Creation of Israel and the 1948 War transformed regional politics and security.’
The establishment of Israel in 1948 and the ensuing Arab–Israeli War reshaped Middle Eastern politics, intensified regional rivalries, displaced populations, and laid the foundations of the continuing conflict.
The Birth of Israel: Historical Background
Zionism and the British Mandate
The roots of Israel’s statehood lie in Zionism, a nationalist movement seeking a Jewish homeland in Palestine, historically tied to Jewish identity.
Zionism: A political and ideological movement advocating the return of the Jewish people to their ancestral homeland and the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.
During the British Mandate (1920–1948), tensions grew between Jewish immigrants and Arab Palestinians. British policies, notably the Balfour Declaration (1917) promising support for a Jewish national home, intensified Arab fears of displacement. Jewish immigration surged, especially during the 1930s due to rising antisemitism and the Holocaust, altering demographics and fuelling communal violence.
The UN Partition Plan of 1947
Britain, unable to manage escalating violence, referred the problem to the United Nations. The UN Partition Plan (Resolution 181) proposed dividing Palestine into:
A Jewish state (55% of the land)
An Arab state (45% of the land)
Jerusalem as an international city under UN administration
Jewish leaders accepted the plan despite territorial compromises. Arab leaders and states rejected it, viewing it as illegitimate and unjust, as Arabs formed the majority population but were allocated less land.
Declaration of the State of Israel
David Ben-Gurion and 14 May 1948
With Britain’s mandate ending on 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion, head of the Jewish Agency, declared the independence of the State of Israel. The new state received immediate recognition from the United States and later the Soviet Union, reflecting Cold War interests in the region.
David Ben-Gurion reads Israel’s Declaration of Independence at the Tel Aviv Museum, 14 May 1948. This pivotal moment marked the formal birth of the State of Israel and triggered immediate Arab intervention. Source
For Palestinians and Arab states, this declaration represented al-Nakba (“the catastrophe”), marking the dispossession and displacement of hundreds of thousands of Arabs.
The 1948 Arab–Israeli War: Outbreak and Participants
Immediate Arab Response
Within 24 hours of Israel’s declaration, armies from Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded, aiming to:
Prevent the establishment of a Jewish state
Support the Palestinian Arab population
Secure their own strategic interests and territorial ambitions
The conflict is also known as the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949) or Israel’s War of Independence.
Stages of the War
The war unfolded in distinct phases:
Civil War Phase (Nov 1947 – May 1948):
Prior to independence, conflict erupted between Jewish and Arab communities within Palestine. The Haganah (main Jewish militia) gained the upper hand, capturing key towns and routes.Invasion Phase (May – June 1948):
Arab state armies launched coordinated invasions. Israel, despite initial setbacks, mobilised effectively through universal conscription and foreign arms supplies, including from Czechoslovakia.Truce and Reorganisation (June – July 1948):
A UN-brokered ceasefire allowed both sides to regroup. Israel consolidated its forces into the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).Israeli Counter-Offensives (July 1948 – March 1949):
Israel launched successful offensives, seizing additional territory beyond the UN partition borders.
Key Factors Behind Israeli Survival and Victory
Several elements explain Israel’s success against numerically superior Arab forces:
Organisation and Leadership:
The transition from militias to the IDF under central command improved coordination. Leaders like Ben-Gurion prioritised military strategy and mobilisation.Population Mobilisation:
Almost the entire Jewish population was mobilised, giving Israel a manpower advantage relative to population size.Foreign Support:
The Czechoslovak arms deal (1948) provided essential weapons. Political recognition from the USSR and USA bolstered Israel’s legitimacy and morale.Arab Disunity:
Rivalries among Arab states undermined coordination. Jordan’s King Abdullah I prioritised annexing the West Bank over Palestinian independence, while Syria and Egypt pursued separate agendas.
Outcomes and Consequences of the 1948 War
Armistice Agreements and Territorial Gains
By early 1949, Israel had secured decisive victories. Armistice agreements with Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon established new borders:
United Nations Armistice Agreements map (1949–1950) showing the Green Line and associated zones. It illustrates Israel’s territorial expansion to about 78% of Mandatory Palestine and Jordanian control of the West Bank, highlighting the shift from the 1947 partition. Source
Israel controlled 78% of former Mandate Palestine, significantly more than the 55% allocated under the UN plan.
Jordan annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem, while Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip.
The Arab states refused to sign peace treaties, leaving the region in a state of de facto war.
The Palestinian Refugee Crisis
A major humanitarian consequence was the creation of a vast Palestinian refugee population.
Approximately 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled during the war.
Many ended up in refugee camps in Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, where their presence destabilised host countries and fuelled future conflicts.
Nakba: Arabic for “catastrophe”, referring to the mass displacement of Palestinians during the 1948 war and the loss of their homeland.
The unresolved refugee issue became a central grievance in the Arab–Israeli conflict, shaping regional politics and resistance movements.
Regional and International Impact
The war transformed Middle Eastern geopolitics:
Israel’s survival and expansion altered the balance of power, creating a permanent Jewish state in the region.
Arab nationalism intensified, with leaders such as Gamal Abdel Nasser rising partly in response to the humiliation of 1948.
The conflict became a focal point of Cold War rivalry, with superpowers seeking influence through alliances and arms sales.
Legacy of 1948 for Regional Security and Politics
The creation of Israel and the First Arab–Israeli War set the stage for ongoing regional instability. The war entrenched hostility between Israel and its neighbours, sowed the seeds of future wars (1956, 1967, 1973), and ensured the Palestinian question remained unresolved. It also marked a turning point where Arab–Israeli conflict became central to Middle Eastern politics, shaping alliances, ideologies, and superpower involvement for decades to come.
FAQ
Britain’s decision to terminate its mandate in May 1948 left a power vacuum in Palestine. British forces avoided direct involvement in the emerging conflict, but their departure removed a restraining force on both Jewish and Arab factions.
The timing of withdrawal allowed Jewish leaders to prepare for statehood and military defence, while Arab states were less coordinated. British restrictions on arms supplies to both sides hindered Arab readiness, but Jewish forces acquired weapons through other channels, giving them a critical advantage once the war began.
The Holocaust profoundly shaped global attitudes toward Zionism. The revelation of Nazi atrocities generated widespread sympathy for Jewish survivors and intensified calls for a secure homeland.
Western governments, particularly the United States, were more receptive to Zionist aspirations after 1945.
Holocaust survivors migrating to Palestine strengthened the demographic and moral case for a Jewish state.
This context contributed to international backing for the UN Partition Plan and swift recognition of Israel by major powers after its declaration of independence.
Arab leaders rejected Resolution 181 for ideological, demographic, and political reasons.
They argued the plan violated the principle of self-determination, as Arabs were the majority population but given less land.
Many viewed the partition as a continuation of Western imperial interference and opposed a Jewish state on religious and nationalist grounds.
Internally, Arab regimes feared domestic unrest if they appeared to accept a perceived injustice, which hardened their collective stance against the plan.
The Czechoslovak arms deal (1948) was crucial in transforming the balance of power during the conflict.
It supplied Israel with rifles, machine guns, artillery, and aircraft, enabling the formation of a more effective Israel Defense Forces (IDF).
These weapons arrived at a pivotal moment when Arab forces initially held the advantage.
The deal, backed by the Soviet Union, also demonstrated how Cold War politics intersected with the Middle East, with both superpowers seeking influence over the new state.
The defeat had far-reaching political consequences for Arab regimes.
It discredited existing governments, leading to coups in Egypt (1952) and Syria (1949) as militaries capitalised on public anger.
Rivalries deepened, particularly over Jordan’s annexation of the West Bank, which some Arab leaders viewed as a betrayal of Palestinian aspirations.
The sense of humiliation fuelled pan-Arab nationalism and set the stage for new ideologies and alliances that would shape regional politics for decades.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
State two consequences of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War for the Palestinian Arab population.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct consequence, up to 2 marks.
Accept any two of the following:
Creation of a large Palestinian refugee population (approx. 700,000 displaced).
Many Palestinians fled or were expelled from their homes during the war.
Refugees settled in camps in Jordan, Lebanon, or Syria, often in poor conditions.
The Nakba entrenched Palestinian national identity and grievance.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the 1948 Arab–Israeli War affected the political landscape of the Middle East.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 6 marks based on depth, accuracy, and clarity of explanation.
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Limited or generalised statements, e.g. “The war changed the Middle East” with minimal elaboration.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of key effects, such as Israel’s survival and Arab hostility, with limited detail.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear, detailed explanation of multiple significant impacts with precise historical examples.
Indicative content (any well-developed points can gain credit):
Establishment and survival of Israel altered the balance of power and secured a permanent Jewish state.
Arab nationalism intensified, with leaders like Nasser rising partly due to the defeat.
Palestinian displacement created ongoing refugee crises and political instability in neighbouring states.
The conflict entrenched Arab–Israeli hostility, shaping future wars (1956, 1967).
Cold War involvement increased as the USA and USSR sought influence in the region.
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