OCR Specification focus:
‘Arab–Israeli wars (1956, 1967, 1973) and invasions of Lebanon (1982, 2006) and Gaza (2008).’
From 1956 to 2008, Arab–Israeli wars and invasions reshaped Middle Eastern politics, redefining regional power balances, deepening the Palestinian issue, and influencing global strategic interests.
The Suez Crisis, 1956: Second Arab–Israeli War
The Suez Crisis (1956) marked the first major Arab–Israeli conflict after Israel’s creation in 1948. It was rooted in Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser’s nationalisation of the Suez Canal, previously controlled by British and French interests.
Causes and Background
Nasser’s nationalisation challenged Western strategic and economic interests.
Britain and France sought to regain control of the canal and curb Nasser’s rising influence.
Israel aimed to end fedayeen raids (Palestinian guerrilla attacks) and reopen the Straits of Tiran, vital for its trade.
Course of the Conflict
Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula on 29 October 1956, advancing rapidly towards the Suez Canal.
Britain and France issued an ultimatum, then bombed Egyptian targets under the guise of separating the combatants.
International pressure, particularly from the United States and the Soviet Union, forced a ceasefire.
Outcomes and Significance
A UN Emergency Force (UNEF) was deployed in Sinai to supervise withdrawal.
Britain and France’s influence declined sharply, revealing the United States and USSR as dominant powers.
Nasser emerged as an Arab nationalist hero, while Israel gained short-term security guarantees.
The Six-Day War, 1967
The Six-Day War dramatically transformed the Middle East’s geopolitical landscape. Pre-emptive Israeli action reshaped borders and intensified the Arab–Israeli conflict.
Causes
Rising Arab nationalism and calls for Israel’s destruction.
Egypt’s expulsion of UNEF and closure of the Straits of Tiran heightened tensions.
Arab military alliances formed under Nasser’s leadership.
Course of the War
On 5 June 1967, Israel launched pre-emptive air strikes, destroying most Egyptian, Syrian, and Jordanian aircraft.
Swift ground offensives followed:
Sinai Peninsula captured from Egypt.
West Bank and East Jerusalem taken from Jordan.
Golan Heights seized from Syria.
Israel captured Sinai, Gaza, the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights in six days, transforming the strategic map.
A clear, labelled map of the territories occupied by Israel after the Six-Day War in June 1967. It highlights Sinai, Gaza, the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights, matching the narrative in the notes. This visual focuses on outcomes rather than operational detail to keep attention on syllabus priorities. Source
Outcomes and Significance
Israel’s territory tripled, creating a new strategic reality.
The war deepened the Palestinian refugee crisis and fuelled calls for liberation.
UN Resolution 242 called for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories and Arab recognition of Israel, setting the framework for future diplomacy.
The Yom Kippur War, 1973
The Yom Kippur War saw Egypt and Syria attempt to reverse the 1967 losses and restore Arab pride.
Causes
Desire to reclaim territories lost in 1967, especially the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights.
Egyptian President Anwar Sadat sought to improve negotiating leverage with Israel and demonstrate Arab resolve.
Course of the War
On 6 October 1973, during the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, Egypt and Syria launched coordinated offensives.
Egyptian forces crossed the Suez Canal, breaching the Bar Lev Line, while Syrian troops advanced into the Golan Heights.
Israel eventually mobilised reserves and counterattacked, crossing into Egypt and encircling the Third Army.
Outcomes and Significance
Military stalemate but strategic success for Egypt in restoring Arab confidence.
Paved the way for Camp David Accords (1978) and the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty (1979).
The oil embargo imposed by OPEC demonstrated oil’s power as a political weapon.
The Lebanon War, 1982
The 1982 Lebanon War reflected Israel’s evolving strategic concerns, focusing on the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and its influence in Lebanon.
Causes
PLO attacks from southern Lebanon targeted northern Israel.
Israel sought to destroy the PLO infrastructure and install a friendly Christian-led government in Beirut.
Course of the War
Operation Peace for Galilee began on 6 June 1982, with Israeli forces advancing towards Beirut.
Fierce urban fighting ensued; PLO fighters evacuated Beirut under international mediation.
The conflict also saw the controversial Sabra and Shatila massacre, carried out by Lebanese militias under Israeli watch.
Outcomes and Significance
The PLO relocated to Tunis, diminishing its operational base near Israel.
The war destabilised Lebanon, intensifying sectarian divisions and contributing to the rise of Hezbollah, a Shi‘a militant group backed by Iran.
Israel’s occupation of southern Lebanon continued until 2000.
The Lebanon War, 2006
The 2006 Lebanon War marked a new phase in Israel’s confrontations with non-state actors, primarily Hezbollah.
Causes
Hezbollah’s cross-border raid on 12 July 2006 killed eight Israeli soldiers and captured two.
Israel aimed to neutralise Hezbollah and secure its northern border.
Course of the War
Israel launched massive air strikes and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon.
Hezbollah responded with rocket attacks deep into Israeli territory.
After 34 days, a UN-brokered ceasefire (Resolution 1701) ended the fighting.
Outcomes and Significance
Hezbollah claimed a symbolic victory for resisting the Israeli military.
The war highlighted the challenges posed by asymmetric warfare and non-state actors.
UNIFIL (United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon) expanded its presence to monitor the ceasefire.
Gaza War, 2008–2009 (Operation Cast Lead)
The Gaza War (2008–2009) reflected ongoing tensions between Israel and Hamas, which had controlled Gaza since 2007.
Causes
Continued rocket fire from Gaza into southern Israel.
Israel sought to weaken Hamas’ military capabilities and end rocket attacks.
Course of the War
Israel launched Operation Cast Lead on 27 December 2008 with intensive air strikes followed by a ground invasion.
Urban warfare in Gaza resulted in heavy casualties, including significant civilian losses.
International criticism grew over Israel’s conduct, while Hamas continued to resist.
Operation Cast Lead (2008–09) combined an air campaign with a ground incursion to suppress rocket fire from Hamas, provoking international debate on proportionality.
A concise operational map of Operation Cast Lead (2008–09) showing the Israeli ground thrusts and key locales inside the Gaza Strip. It is designed for overview and complements the narrative in your notes about aims and methods. Extra tactical symbology is minimal, keeping the focus on movement and area. Source
Outcomes and Significance
Hamas remained in control of Gaza, demonstrating the limits of Israeli military power.
The conflict worsened the humanitarian situation in Gaza and deepened the Israeli–Palestinian divide.
The war underlined the shift from state-to-state conflict to asymmetric warfare involving non-state actors.
FAQ
Superpower involvement was crucial in shaping outcomes and diplomatic settlements.
In 1956, the United States and the Soviet Union jointly pressured Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw from Egypt, signalling a shift in global influence.
During the 1967 Six-Day War, the United States supplied political backing to Israel, while the USSR provided military support to Arab states.
In 1973, Cold War tensions escalated as the USSR resupplied Egypt and Syria, and the United States initiated an airlift of arms to Israel. This confrontation prompted intense superpower diplomacy, leading to a UN ceasefire.
The 1967 defeat catalysed a transformation in Palestinian politics.
The loss of the West Bank and Gaza placed almost all Palestinians under Israeli control.
Disillusionment with Arab regimes led to the rise of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) as the principal representative of Palestinian aspirations.
Armed struggle, rather than reliance on Arab states, became the dominant strategy, marking a shift in Palestinian nationalism.
Egypt achieved key political and psychological goals:
By crossing the Suez Canal and breaching the Bar Lev Line, Egyptian forces demonstrated Arab military capability.
The war restored Arab morale damaged by the 1967 defeat and enhanced Sadat’s legitimacy at home and abroad.
Crucially, Egypt gained diplomatic leverage, which Sadat used to pursue negotiations leading to the Camp David Accords and eventual peace with Israel.
The war reshaped Lebanon and the wider region in several ways:
The PLO’s expulsion to Tunis reduced its immediate threat to Israel but weakened Lebanon’s sovereignty.
It intensified sectarian divisions and fuelled the Lebanese Civil War.
Most significantly, the conflict facilitated the rise of Hezbollah, a Shi‘a movement backed by Iran, which would become a key regional actor and Israel’s main northern adversary.
The nature of conflict shifted from conventional state-led wars to asymmetric struggles involving non-state actors.
1956, 1967, and 1973 featured large-scale conventional wars between nation-states.
1982 marked a transition, as Israel confronted the PLO and later Hezbollah, reflecting a growing role for non-state militias.
By 2006 and 2008, conflicts with Hezbollah and Hamas involved guerrilla tactics, rocket attacks, and urban combat, highlighting the challenges of asymmetric warfare and diminishing the effectiveness of traditional military strategies.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two territories captured by Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967.
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correct territory, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Accept any two of the following:
Sinai Peninsula
Gaza Strip
West Bank (including East Jerusalem)
Golan Heights
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two consequences of the Yom Kippur War of 1973 for the Middle East.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic statements with limited development (e.g. “It led to peace talks.” “Oil was used as a weapon.”).
Little or no supporting detail.
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Clear explanation of one consequence with supporting detail, or two consequences with limited development.
For example: “The war paved the way for the Camp David Accords as Sadat sought negotiations with Israel.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Detailed explanation of two well-developed consequences with precise supporting knowledge.
Examples:
“The war boosted Arab morale after the 1967 defeat, restoring confidence and strengthening Sadat’s leadership.”
“The conflict prompted the OPEC oil embargo, demonstrating oil’s power as a political weapon and reshaping global economic and diplomatic dynamics.”
