OCR Specification focus:
‘The Occupied Territories, settlements and the Wall intensified disputes over land, water and resources.’
The Israeli occupation of territories captured in 1967 has remained a central source of conflict, with disputes over settlements, the Separation Wall, land ownership, and water resources shaping the Israeli–Palestinian struggle.
The Occupied Territories: Origins and Significance
Following the Six-Day War of June 1967, Israel captured the West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem, the Golan Heights, and the Sinai Peninsula. These areas became known collectively as the Occupied Territories. Most attention centres on the West Bank, Gaza, and East Jerusalem, as these are claimed by Palestinians for a future state.
Occupied Territories: Areas captured by Israel during the Six-Day War (1967), primarily the West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem, and Golan Heights, that remain under Israeli control and are central to the Arab–Israeli conflict.
Control of these territories gave Israel a strategic buffer zone and leverage in negotiations. However, it also brought millions of Palestinians under Israeli military rule, intensifying tensions and international criticism.
Settlements: Expansion and Impact
Emergence and Growth of Settlements
Israeli settlements — Jewish communities built on land occupied in 1967 — became a central policy tool for shaping the political landscape.
Israeli Settlements: Civilian communities established by Israel in territories captured in 1967, often considered illegal under international law, particularly the Fourth Geneva Convention.
Key stages of settlement development:
Late 1960s–1970s: Early settlements justified on security grounds and religious claims, supported by governments such as Golda Meir’s and Menachem Begin’s.
1980s–1990s: Settlement growth accelerated with ideological settler movements like Gush Emunim, seeking a permanent Jewish presence in biblical Judea and Samaria (West Bank).
2000s–present: Settlements expanded further despite international condemnation and peace process commitments.
Today, over 600,000 settlers live in more than 200 settlements and outposts in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. These settlements are linked by roads and infrastructure that fragment Palestinian territory, complicating the creation of a contiguous Palestinian state.
Legal and Political Controversies
The Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) prohibits an occupying power from transferring its civilian population into occupied territory. Most of the international community considers Israeli settlements illegal under this provision.
Israel disputes this interpretation, arguing that the West Bank is “disputed” rather than occupied, as it was not part of a recognised sovereign state before 1967.
Settlements are deeply controversial within Israeli politics, with right-wing parties promoting expansion and others warning they endanger a two-state solution.
The Separation Wall: Security and Controversy
Construction and Purpose
After the outbreak of the Second Intifada (2000–2005), Israel began constructing a Separation Barrier — often called the Separation Wall or Security Fence — primarily in and around the West Bank.
Separation Wall: A system of fences, walls, and checkpoints built by Israel from 2002 onwards, officially for security against terrorism but criticised as a means of annexing Palestinian land.
Spanning over 700 km, the barrier is a mix of concrete walls, barbed wire, trenches, and surveillance systems.
Israel argues it has been highly effective in preventing suicide bombings and attacks.
Palestinians and many international bodies see it as a de facto annexation of land, as around 85% of the wall lies inside the West Bank rather than along the 1949 Green Line.
UN-sourced map of the Israeli West Bank barrier (status as of July 2011), differentiating completed, under-construction and planned segments and marking wall gates managed by the Israeli army. It visually clarifies where the route deviates from the Green Line. Although dated, the symbology crisply communicates mechanisms of separation and access regulation referenced in the syllabus. Source
Legal and Humanitarian Issues
In 2004, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued an advisory opinion declaring the wall illegal where it deviates into occupied territory and called for its dismantling.
The barrier restricts Palestinian movement, access to farmland, education, and healthcare, and separates families and communities.
Its route often encloses major settlement blocs, consolidating Israeli control over strategic areas.
Land Disputes and Resource Control
Land Confiscation and Ownership
Land control lies at the heart of the conflict. Since 1967, Israel has declared vast areas of the West Bank as “state land”, military zones, or nature reserves, often facilitating settlement construction.
Palestinian landowners frequently face demolition orders for building without Israeli permits, which are rarely granted.
The Oslo Accords (1993–1995) divided the West Bank into Areas A, B, and C, with Israel retaining full control over Area C (about 60% of the territory), where most settlements are located.
Land fragmentation prevents Palestinian economic development and undermines the prospects for a viable state.
Map showing the West Bank divided into Area A (Palestinian civil and security control), Area B (Palestinian civil/Israeli–Palestinian joint security) and Area C (Israeli civil and security control). The cartography highlights the non-contiguous nature of Areas A and B and the contiguous extent of Area C that contains most Israeli settlements. Labels are limited to essential legend items for readability. Source
Water as a Strategic Resource
Water scarcity adds another layer of tension. The Middle East is one of the world’s driest regions, and control over water resources is crucial for both populations.
Aquifer: A natural underground layer of water-bearing rock from which groundwater can be extracted.
Key aspects of water conflict:
Israel controls most access to the Mountain Aquifer, the primary water source for both Israelis and Palestinians in the West Bank.
Palestinians are often restricted in drilling new wells or accessing existing ones, leading to per capita water use far below World Health Organization recommendations.
The Jordan River basin is also tightly managed by Israel, limiting Palestinian irrigation and agriculture.
Water inequality fuels resentment and is seen as part of a broader pattern of structural control.
Generalised hydro-map highlighting the Mountain Aquifer alongside the Coastal Aquifer, indicating how principal freshwater sources straddle political boundaries. This provides geographic context for water allocation and access discussed in the notes. The map includes broader Israeli water resources beyond the West Bank (extra contextual detail that remains helpful). Source
Settlements, Land and Water: Combined Effects
The interaction of settlements, the Separation Wall, land control, and water restrictions deepens Palestinian dependency and shapes the conflict’s dynamics:
Settlements and roads divide Palestinian territory into disconnected enclaves.
The Wall cements new boundaries and incorporates key settlements into Israeli territory.
Land confiscation and zoning laws limit Palestinian urban expansion.
Control of water resources reinforces economic disparities and dependence.
These factors collectively undermine the two-state solution envisioned by the Oslo Accords and contribute to recurring cycles of violence and diplomatic stalemate. They also highlight how the Israeli occupation is not solely a military phenomenon but a complex system of spatial, legal, and resource control.
FAQ
Early settlements in the late 1960s were small and often justified on security grounds, located near borders or strategic points. In the 1970s and 1980s, ideological settler groups such as Gush Emunim pushed for expansion based on religious and historical claims to the land.
From the 1990s onwards, settlements evolved into larger, suburban-style towns with significant infrastructure, schools, and businesses, many connected to Israel proper by dedicated roads. Today, some major settlements exceed 40,000 residents, and they are supported by state incentives such as tax breaks and housing subsidies. This transformation has made settlements permanent fixtures, complicating efforts to reverse them through peace negotiations.
The barrier’s route often cuts through agricultural land, separating farmers from their fields and leading to loss of livelihoods.
Key economic impacts include:
Reduced agricultural output due to restricted access to farmland and water.
Decline in trade as movement of goods and workers between towns and cities is slowed by checkpoints.
Increased dependency on external aid and Israeli employment, deepening economic vulnerability.
Some Palestinian businesses have relocated closer to checkpoints or within urban areas, but overall, the wall has significantly weakened local economies and increased poverty in many communities.
Israel controls the bulk of the Mountain Aquifer, allocating most of the water to its own population and settlements. Palestinians face strict limits on drilling new wells and often must rely on purchasing water from Israel.
Consequences include:
Domestic shortages, with some villages receiving water for only a few days each week.
Reduced agricultural productivity, as limited irrigation restricts crop variety and yield.
Infrastructure challenges, since permits for water network repairs or expansion are often denied.
This unequal distribution reinforces socio-economic disparities and fuels grievances over resource control.
Area C, comprising around 60% of the West Bank, is under full Israeli civil and security control. It contains most Israeli settlements, major road networks, and key water resources.
Because Palestinians are rarely granted building permits there, development is severely constrained. This results in:
Fragmented Palestinian territory, making statehood geographically challenging.
Limited access to natural resources, undermining economic independence.
Expansion of settlements, further entrenching Israeli presence.
Control of Area C is widely seen as crucial to any future Palestinian state’s viability, and its status remains a central obstacle in negotiations.
The UN Security Council has passed multiple resolutions, notably Resolution 242 (1967) and Resolution 2334 (2016), calling for withdrawal from occupied territories and an end to settlement activity. Most states and the International Court of Justice (ICJ) consider both the settlements and the Wall violations of international law.
However, enforcement is limited. The United States has at times shielded Israel from stronger UN action, and Israel disputes the applicability of the Fourth Geneva Convention to the territories. Diplomatic efforts like the Oslo Accords sought to address these issues but failed to produce a final settlement, leaving legal disputes unresolved.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What are the Occupied Territories, and why are they significant in the Arab–Israeli conflict?
Mark Scheme (2 marks total):
1 mark for identifying that the Occupied Territories are areas captured by Israel in the Six-Day War (1967) (e.g., West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem, Golan Heights).
1 mark for explaining their significance, such as their central role in disputes over land, settlements, and statehood between Israelis and Palestinians.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Israeli settlements and the Separation Wall have contributed to tensions over land and resources in the Occupied Territories.
Mark Scheme (6 marks total):
1 mark for identifying that settlements are Israeli civilian communities built on land captured in 1967.
1 mark for explaining that these settlements are considered illegal under international law and are widely opposed internationally.
1 mark for describing how settlements fragment Palestinian territory, making a contiguous state difficult to establish.
1 mark for noting that the Separation Wall runs mostly inside the West Bank, deviating from the Green Line and enclosing major settlement blocs.
1 mark for explaining how the wall restricts Palestinian movement and access to farmland, water, and essential services.
1 mark for linking these factors to increased tensions over land and water resources, deepening Palestinian dependency and fuelling conflict.
