OCR Specification focus:
‘Palestinian refugees (impact on Jordan, Lebanon), the PLO and Arafat; Intifadas (1987–1993, 2000–2011); Palestinian Authority in West Bank and Gaza.’
Palestinian history since 1948 has been shaped by displacement, armed resistance, political organisation, and state-building efforts, profoundly influencing Middle Eastern politics and conflict dynamics.
Palestinian Refugees and Regional Impact
The creation of Israel in 1948 triggered the Nakba (“catastrophe”), during which over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled from their homes.
Nakba: The mass displacement of Palestinians following the creation of Israel in 1948, leading to a major refugee crisis and shaping Palestinian national identity.
Scale and Distribution of Refugees
Refugees settled in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and the Gaza Strip, many in camps administered by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA).
Their numbers have since grown to over 5 million, with descendants continuing to claim a “right of return” under UN Resolution 194.
Impact on Host States
Jordan granted citizenship to most refugees but faced challenges integrating them. Tensions culminated in Black September (1970), when conflict erupted between the PLO and King Hussein’s forces.
Lebanon hosted a large refugee population without granting citizenship, exacerbating sectarian tensions. The PLO’s presence contributed to the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) and invited Israeli interventions, notably in 1982.
Refugees remained politically marginalised in many states but were central to Palestinian national consciousness and the conflict’s persistence.
The Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and Yasser Arafat
Founded in 1964 under Arab League auspices, the PLO sought to unify Palestinian political and military efforts against Israel.
PLO (Palestine Liberation Organisation): Umbrella organisation established to represent the Palestinian people and pursue the liberation of Palestine through political and armed struggle.
Evolution Under Arafat
Yasser Arafat, leader of the Fatah faction, became Chairman of the PLO in 1969, shifting it from Arab state control to an independent Palestinian-led movement.
The PLO used guerrilla tactics and high-profile attacks in the 1970s to internationalise the Palestinian cause, gaining observer status at the UN in 1974.
The organisation gradually moved towards diplomacy, endorsing a two-state solution in the 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence.
Challenges and Shifts
Expelled from Jordan after 1970, the PLO relocated to Lebanon, then Tunisia after Israel’s 1982 invasion.
Arafat’s leadership was marked by attempts to balance militancy and diplomacy, navigating between Palestinian factions and international pressures.
The Intifadas: Popular Uprisings Against Occupation
The First Intifada (1987–1993)
A spontaneous uprising in the West Bank and Gaza began in December 1987, fuelled by frustration over Israeli occupation, settlements, and economic hardship.
Methods included mass protests, civil disobedience, strikes, and stone-throwing by youths.
The uprising shifted international opinion, highlighting the Palestinian struggle and pressuring Israel into negotiation.
It spurred the rise of Islamist groups like Hamas, which challenged the PLO’s secular nationalism.
The Intifada’s momentum led to the Madrid Conference (1991) and ultimately the Oslo Accords (1993), which reshaped Palestinian governance.
The Second Intifada (2000–2011)
Triggered by Ariel Sharon’s visit to the al-Aqsa Mosque compound, the second uprising was far more violent, involving suicide bombings, Israeli military incursions, and heavy casualties on both sides.
It reflected Palestinian disillusionment with the Oslo peace process and ongoing settlement expansion.
Israel responded with severe military measures, including Operation Defensive Shield (2002) and construction of the West Bank barrier.
The uprising weakened the PLO’s authority and accelerated the rise of Hamas, deepening Palestinian political fragmentation.
The Palestinian Authority (PA)
The Palestinian Authority (PA) was created under the Oslo Accords (1993–1995) as a transitional self-governing body in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin, witnessed by President Bill Clinton, at the Oslo Accords signing ceremony on 13 September 1993. This landmark event marked the transition from armed struggle to diplomatic engagement and led directly to the creation of the Palestinian Authority. Source
Palestinian Authority (PA): Interim administrative organisation established by the Oslo Accords to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza until a final-status agreement could be reached.
Powers and Structure
The PA was granted limited autonomy over civil affairs and internal security in Areas A and B of the West Bank, with Israel retaining control over Area C.
Map of the Oslo II administrative divisions of the West Bank: Area A under full Palestinian civil and internal security control, Area B under Palestinian civil and Israeli security control, and Area C under full Israeli control. The map illustrates the territorial and administrative limits of Palestinian Authority governance. Source
It had an elected President and Legislative Council, with Arafat elected as the first President in 1996.
Institutions such as security services, ministries, and courts were created, though heavily dependent on international aid and Israeli cooperation.
Challenges and Limitations
Sovereignty remained incomplete, with Israeli forces retaining control over borders, airspace, and significant territory.
Corruption, inefficiency, and accusations of authoritarianism weakened public support for the PA.
The outbreak of the Second Intifada and Israel’s reoccupation of PA-controlled areas undermined its authority.
Division Between Fatah and Hamas
After Arafat’s death in 2004, Mahmoud Abbas became PA President.
Hamas’s 2006 electoral victory led to a violent split: Fatah retained control of the West Bank, while Hamas took over Gaza in 2007.
This division has paralysed Palestinian governance, complicating negotiations and state-building efforts.
Lasting Significance
The Palestinian experience since 1948—marked by mass displacement, resistance, and attempts at statehood—has remained central to the Arab–Israeli conflict and broader Middle Eastern politics. The PLO, Intifadas, and Palestinian Authority reflect evolving strategies to achieve national self-determination, yet enduring internal divisions and Israeli occupation continue to shape their struggle.
FAQ
Initially set up as temporary shelters by UNRWA after 1948, refugee camps became permanent communities as return remained unachieved. Over decades, they developed schools, healthcare centres, and local governance structures.
Camps also became hubs of political mobilisation. Many served as recruitment and organisational bases for the PLO and later groups like Hamas. They played a vital role in preserving Palestinian identity and collective memory, sustaining the demand for the right of return.
Arafat believed both tactics were necessary to achieve Palestinian national goals. In the late 1960s and 1970s, the PLO relied heavily on guerrilla attacks and hijackings to gain global attention.
From the 1980s, Arafat shifted focus to diplomacy, especially after recognising the State of Israel in 1988. He aimed to secure statehood through negotiation while maintaining armed wings as leverage, culminating in his leadership of the Oslo peace process and the creation of the Palestinian Authority.
Nature of resistance: The First Intifada relied largely on grassroots civil disobedience, protests, and boycotts. The Second Intifada was far more militarised, involving suicide bombings and Israeli military operations.
Leadership: The PLO played a prominent role in guiding the First Intifada, whereas Hamas and other Islamist groups gained influence during the Second.
Outcomes: The First Intifada led to negotiations and the Oslo Accords, while the Second deepened mistrust, caused heavier casualties, and set back the peace process.
Hamas opposed Oslo because it believed recognising Israel and negotiating over only part of historic Palestine betrayed Palestinian rights. It argued that armed resistance should continue until full liberation.
This rejection created a deep ideological and political rift with Fatah and the PLO. Hamas’s electoral victory in 2006 and subsequent takeover of Gaza in 2007 institutionalised the split, resulting in rival Palestinian administrations and weakening the unity needed for statehood negotiations.
Limited sovereignty: Israeli control over borders, resources, and much of the West Bank restricts PA authority.
Fragmentation: The 2007 Fatah–Hamas split created two separate administrations in the West Bank and Gaza.
Corruption and legitimacy: Accusations of corruption, lack of transparency, and stalled elections have eroded public trust.
Economic dependency: Reliance on foreign aid and Israeli cooperation limits independent policymaking.
These factors have hampered state-building efforts and undermined the PA’s credibility as a representative of all Palestinians.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the primary purpose of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) when it was founded in 1964?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying that the PLO aimed to represent the Palestinian people.
1 mark for stating that its goal was to liberate Palestine, initially through armed struggle against Israel.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two significant impacts of the First Intifada (1987–1993) on the Palestinian national movement.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 3 marks per impact. To gain full marks for each:
1 mark for identifying an impact.
1 mark for explaining how or why it occurred.
1 mark for linking it to the wider Palestinian national movement.
Possible points:
It increased international awareness of the Palestinian cause and pressure on Israel (1 mark), leading to renewed diplomatic efforts such as the Madrid Conference (1 mark), strengthening the Palestinian position in negotiations (1 mark).
It prompted the PLO to shift towards diplomacy (1 mark), contributing to the Oslo Accords and the establishment of the Palestinian Authority (1 mark), thus advancing Palestinian self-governance (1 mark).
It encouraged the emergence of Islamist groups such as Hamas (1 mark), altering the internal dynamics of Palestinian politics (1 mark), which affected leadership and strategies within the national movement (1 mark).
