OCR Specification focus:
‘Arab attitudes in 1948 and Israel’s creation framed immediate regional hostility.’
The creation of Israel in 1948 triggered intense Arab hostility rooted in nationalism, colonial legacy, and Palestinian displacement, shaping regional politics and defining decades of Arab–Israeli conflict.
Arab Attitudes towards Zionism and Jewish Settlement before 1948
Origins of Arab Opposition
Arab hostility to the establishment of a Jewish state did not suddenly emerge in 1948 but was deeply rooted in earlier decades:
Opposition to Zionism developed from the late 19th century as Jewish immigration increased under Ottoman rule.
After the Balfour Declaration (1917) — which supported a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine — Arab resentment intensified, viewing it as a betrayal of Arab promises made during the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence.
Zionism: A nationalist movement advocating the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the historic Land of Israel (Palestine).
Arabs saw Zionism as a colonial intrusion, supported by European powers at their expense.
The British Mandate (1920–1948) deepened tensions, as Jewish immigration continued and land purchases displaced Arab tenants.
Palestinian Arab Nationalism and Resistance
By the 1930s, Palestinian Arab nationalism had become a major political force:
Led by figures like Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Palestinian leaders organised resistance to both British rule and Zionist settlement.
The Arab Revolt (1936–1939) expressed mass rejection of British policies and Jewish immigration, though it was brutally suppressed.
Arab leadership consistently rejected partition proposals, including the Peel Commission (1937) and the UN Partition Plan (1947), believing they violated the territorial integrity of Palestine.
The UN Partition Plan and Arab Response
UN Resolution 181 (1947)
The UN proposed dividing Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international administration.
Map of the United Nations Partition Plan (1947), indicating the proposed Jewish state, Arab state, and Jerusalem as a corpus separatum. It clarifies why many Arab leaders opposed the plan as unjust and externally imposed. Source
The Jewish Agency accepted the plan reluctantly, but Arab leaders rejected it outright, citing:
Violation of the right to self-determination of the Arab majority in Palestine.
The injustice of awarding 55% of the land to Jews, who comprised only about one-third of the population at the time.
Fear that the Jewish state would become a Western colonial outpost in the heart of the Arab world.
Arab League Reaction
The newly formed Arab League (1945) coordinated collective opposition:
It vowed to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state by force if necessary.
Arab governments refused to recognise the legitimacy of the UN plan and prepared for armed intervention.
Arab public opinion across the region strongly supported Palestinian Arabs, viewing their struggle as part of a wider anti-imperialist movement.
Declaration of the State of Israel, May 1948
Ben-Gurion’s Proclamation
On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel, hours before the British Mandate expired.
David Ben-Gurion reading the Declaration of Independence at the Tel Aviv Museum, 14 May 1948. This moment triggered immediate Arab condemnation and set the stage for the region’s first Arab–Israeli war. Source
This act was celebrated by Jewish communities worldwide but immediately condemned by Arab states.
Arab leaders denounced it as illegal and illegitimate, asserting that it ignored the rights of the Arab population.
Immediate Arab Reactions
Arab responses were swift and united:
The Arab League declared that the creation of Israel threatened regional security and sovereignty.
Arab leaders framed the conflict as a defensive war to protect Palestine and the Arab nation.
Propaganda depicted Israel as a product of imperialism and Western betrayal, rallying popular support for war.
Invasion and the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949)
The Coalition of Arab States
On 15 May 1948, the armies of Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded the newly declared state:
Their stated aim was to liberate Palestine and prevent the consolidation of the Jewish state.
Each state had its own strategic motives — for example, King Abdullah of Transjordan sought to annex the West Bank and Jerusalem.
Arab Motivations and Expectations
Arab states believed:
Israel was militarily weak and could be quickly defeated.
The local Palestinian population would rise in support of the invading armies.
The Arab unity ideal would be strengthened by a joint victory against Zionism.
However, these assumptions underestimated the organisation, morale, and determination of the new Israeli forces.
The Palestinian Refugee Crisis and Arab Hostility
The Nakba (Catastrophe)
For Arabs, Israel’s creation was inseparable from the Nakba, the mass displacement of Palestinians:
Over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled from their homes during the war.
Refugees sought shelter in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Gaza, creating a long-term humanitarian and political crisis.
Nakba: Arabic for “catastrophe,” referring to the mass displacement of Palestinians following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.
Arab governments blamed Israel for ethnic cleansing and vowed not to sign peace treaties until refugees could return.
The refugee issue became a symbol of Arab solidarity and a rallying cry for continued resistance.
Ideological and Political Dimensions of Arab Hostility
Arab Nationalism and Anti-Colonialism
The struggle against Israel became intertwined with broader currents of Arab nationalism:
Leaders like Gamal Abdel Nasser portrayed the conflict as part of the anti-colonial struggle against Western imperialism.
Israel was depicted as a colonial settler state, serving Western interests in a post-colonial Middle East.
The Idea of Perpetual War
Some Arab leaders and intellectuals argued that the conflict was existential and could only end with Israel’s destruction:
Peace or recognition would legitimise what they saw as an illegitimate state.
The “three noes” — no peace, no recognition, no negotiations — adopted at the Khartoum Conference (1967) had their ideological roots in this early post-1948 hostility.
Lasting Impact of 1948 Arab Attitudes
The attitudes formed in 1948 shaped the trajectory of Middle Eastern politics:
Arab refusal to recognise Israel set the stage for continued military conflict and diplomatic deadlock.
The Palestinian question became central to Arab identity and foreign policy, influencing alliances and domestic politics.
Arab hostility towards Israel in 1948 created enduring patterns of regional rivalry, ideological polarisation, and mutual mistrust that defined Arab–Israeli relations for decades.
FAQ
Religion was a significant, though not exclusive, factor in Arab hostility. Many Arab leaders and religious figures viewed Palestine as part of the Islamic and Arab heartland, making the establishment of a Jewish state deeply contentious.
Jerusalem’s sacred status as home to the Al-Aqsa Mosque, Islam’s third holiest site, heightened resistance to partition and Zionist claims. Religious leaders used sermons and public statements to frame opposition as a defence of Islamic heritage. However, nationalist and anti-colonial arguments often took precedence, meaning religion reinforced rather than solely defined Arab attitudes.
Arab public opinion strongly favoured active resistance to Zionism and pressured governments to adopt hardline policies.
Mass demonstrations and media campaigns across the Arab world denounced the UN Partition Plan.
Governments feared domestic backlash if they appeared weak on Palestine, particularly regimes in Egypt, Iraq, and Syria facing internal nationalist movements.
Public sentiment also drove the formation of volunteer militias and influenced the decision to intervene militarily after Israel’s declaration.
This widespread popular support made compromise politically risky, limiting diplomatic options and hardening Arab leaders’ stances.
No, Arab states shared opposition to Israel but had differing agendas:
Transjordan’s King Abdullah sought to annex the West Bank and Jerusalem, prioritising territorial expansion over Palestinian independence.
Egypt aimed to bolster its regional leadership and counter rival monarchies.
Syria and Iraq, influenced by pan-Arab nationalism, advocated for a united Arab front and full Palestinian sovereignty.
These differences complicated military coordination in 1948 and weakened the Arab coalition, despite a shared rejection of Israel’s legitimacy.
The British departure on 14 May 1948 created a power vacuum that intensified Arab fears and prompted swift action.
Without a colonial authority maintaining order, Arab leaders believed they had to act quickly to prevent the consolidation of a Jewish state. The abrupt end of British rule also heightened concerns over security for the Arab population and strengthened calls for military intervention.
Furthermore, many Arabs felt Britain’s withdrawal was irresponsible and biased towards Zionist aims, deepening mistrust of Western involvement and reinforcing hostility toward Israel’s establishment.
Internal divisions among Palestinian leaders weakened their political influence and complicated coordination with Arab states.
Rivalries between prominent families, like the Husseinis and Nashashibis, fragmented the nationalist movement.
The exile of key figures, including Haj Amin al-Husseini, limited leadership capacity on the ground.
Arab governments often sidelined Palestinian leaders, preferring to pursue their own strategic interests.
This disunity made it harder to present a cohesive political programme, contributing to the failure to establish a unified Arab-Palestinian front before and during the 1948 conflict.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
State two reasons why Arab leaders rejected the United Nations Partition Plan of 1947.
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for each valid reason stated, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers:
It violated the principle of Arab self-determination in Palestine. (1)
It awarded a disproportionate amount of land (around 55%) to the Jewish minority. (1)
It was viewed as an externally imposed, colonial-style division of Arab land. (1)
It was feared that a Jewish state would become a Western colonial outpost. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain why Arab attitudes towards the creation of Israel in 1948 were hostile.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic statements with little or no explanation. Limited knowledge or understanding.
E.g. “They did not want a Jewish state.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation offered with relevant factual support. Some understanding of causes of hostility.
E.g. “Arab states opposed the creation of Israel because they felt it was imposed by Western powers and ignored the rights of the Arab population in Palestine.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear, developed explanation with detailed and accurate knowledge. Multiple reasons explored.
Arab hostility was rooted in opposition to Zionism and fears of colonialism. (1)
The UN Partition Plan was rejected as unjust and illegitimate, violating Arab self-determination. (1)
The creation of Israel displaced hundreds of thousands of Palestinians, causing the Nakba and a refugee crisis. (1)
Arab leaders viewed the new state as a Western-backed intrusion threatening Arab unity and sovereignty. (1)
Hostility was further fuelled by anti-imperialist sentiment and the perception that Israel was a colonial settler state. (1)
Arab states saw the conflict as existential and were unwilling to recognise or negotiate with Israel. (1)
