OCR Specification focus:
‘Reasons for attacking Israel and the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949).’
The First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949) erupted after Israel’s declaration of independence, as Arab states sought to prevent a Jewish state, reshaping Middle Eastern politics and society.
Causes of the First Arab–Israeli War
The Legacy of British Withdrawal and Partition
The British withdrawal from Palestine in May 1948 left a political vacuum that intensified tensions. The United Nations Partition Plan of 1947, which proposed dividing Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, was accepted by Jewish leaders but rejected by Arab leaders and Palestinian Arabs, who viewed it as an illegitimate imposition and dispossession of Arab land.
UN Partition Plan for Palestine (Resolution 181, 1947) indicating proposed Jewish and Arab states and an internationalised Jerusalem. This diagram clarifies territorial allocations that immediately preceded the 1948 war. Source
United Nations Partition Plan (1947): A UN resolution proposing the division of Mandatory Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem as an international city.
This rejection created the conditions for armed conflict even before Israel’s declaration of independence, as Arab militias and irregular forces engaged Jewish settlements and convoys.
Arab Nationalism and Opposition to Zionism
The rise of Arab nationalism in the mid-20th century provided a powerful ideological basis for opposition to the creation of a Jewish state. Arab leaders framed the conflict as a struggle against Zionism, which they defined as a colonial project supported by Western powers. They feared that the establishment of Israel would not only dispossess Palestinians but also threaten the integrity and sovereignty of Arab states.
Zionism: A nationalist movement advocating the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, emerging in the late 19th century in response to antisemitism and persecution.
The Arab League, formed in 1945, coordinated opposition to partition, pledging to support Palestinian Arabs militarily and politically. This collective stance reflected both solidarity with the Palestinians and concern over internal legitimacy in Arab capitals.
The Declaration of the State of Israel
On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel, hours before the end of the British Mandate.
For Zionists, this was the realisation of decades of political effort and settlement. For the Arab states, it was an unacceptable fait accompli. The very next day, armies from Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded the new state, marking the start of the First Arab–Israeli War. Their declared aim was to prevent the creation of Israel and to support the Palestinian Arabs, but underlying motives varied:
Egypt sought to assert leadership in the Arab world and prevent Hashemite expansion.
Transjordan’s King Abdullah I aimed to annex parts of Palestine, particularly the West Bank.
Syria and Iraq were motivated by pan-Arab solidarity and domestic pressures.
These diverse aims sometimes led to disunity among Arab forces, a factor that shaped the course of the conflict.
Course of the War, 1948–1949
The Initial Arab Invasion (May–June 1948)
The war began with coordinated invasions on 15 May 1948. Five Arab armies attacked from multiple fronts:
Egyptian forces advanced from the south, moving toward Tel Aviv.
Jordan’s Arab Legion, the most effective Arab force, secured East Jerusalem and the West Bank.
Syrian and Lebanese units attacked from the north, targeting Galilee.
Iraqi troops entered from the east, focusing on the Samarian hills.
Despite being numerically outnumbered and less equipped, Israeli forces (Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi militias) demonstrated greater organisation, unity of command, and local knowledge. The new Israel Defense Forces (IDF) were established in May 1948, centralising military command and improving coordination.
Haganah: The main Jewish paramilitary organisation in Mandatory Palestine, which formed the basis of the Israel Defense Forces after independence.
By June 1948, the war reached a stalemate, leading to the first UN-mediated truce on 11 June 1948. This allowed both sides to regroup and rearm. Israel used the ceasefire to import weapons from Czechoslovakia and to expand its conscription-based army.
Renewed Fighting and Israeli Counteroffensives (July–October 1948)
Hostilities resumed in July 1948. Israel launched Operation Dani to secure Lydda and Ramle, crucial towns near Tel Aviv. Subsequent operations, including Operation Yoav and Operation Hiram, expanded Israeli control in the south and north. Arab forces, plagued by poor coordination and competing objectives, struggled to mount effective counterattacks.
Key developments during this phase included:
Israeli capture of the Galilee from Syrian and Lebanese forces.
Failure of Egyptian offensives in the Negev Desert.
Jordan’s consolidation of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem.
By the autumn of 1948, Israel had moved from a defensive position to a dominant strategic one, holding most of the territory allocated under the UN plan and beyond.
Armistice Agreements and End of Hostilities (1949)
Facing mounting defeats and international pressure, the Arab states agreed to negotiate armistice agreements. Between February and July 1949, Israel signed separate agreements with:
Egypt (24 February 1949)
Lebanon (23 March 1949)
Jordan (3 April 1949)
Syria (20 July 1949)
These agreements established armistice lines, later known as the Green Line, which became the de facto borders of Israel until 1967.
Comparison of the 1947 UN Partition Plan (left) with the 1949 Armistice (“Green Line”) boundaries (right). The image shows how military outcomes reshaped Israel’s borders beyond the original UN proposal. Source
The war ended without a formal peace treaty, and the Palestinian state envisioned by the UN never materialised. The West Bank came under Jordanian control, while Gaza was administered by Egypt.
Consequences of the War’s Course
The First Arab–Israeli War reshaped the region:
Israel secured its independence, expanding its territory beyond the UN plan.
Approximately 700,000 Palestinian Arabs became refugees, an enduring and central issue in the Arab–Israeli conflict.
Arab regimes faced domestic criticism for their failure, fuelling coups and political upheaval.
The conflict deepened enmity and established patterns of hostility and militarisation that defined subsequent decades.
The war also revealed the strategic importance of foreign support, with Israel benefiting from arms supplies and diplomatic backing, while Arab states faced embargoes and logistical challenges. The experience profoundly influenced both Israeli security policy and Arab nationalist movements, setting the stage for future conflicts.
FAQ
Foreign powers had a significant indirect influence. The most notable was Czechoslovakia’s arms shipments to Israel, authorised by the Soviet Union, which supplied rifles, machine guns, and aircraft during the first truce. This dramatically improved Israel’s military capabilities.
The United States and Soviet Union both recognised Israel quickly, lending diplomatic legitimacy. Meanwhile, Arab states suffered from British and US arms embargoes, which limited their access to modern weaponry. The imbalance in external support contributed to Israel’s growing battlefield advantage.
Jerusalem was fiercely contested during the war. Fighting broke out between Jewish and Arab forces even before May 1948, and after the invasion, it became a central strategic and symbolic objective.
West Jerusalem was secured by Israeli forces, despite heavy fighting and sieges.
East Jerusalem, including the Old City and many holy sites, was captured by Jordan’s Arab Legion.
The city was effectively divided along armistice lines in 1949. This division persisted until 1967, when Israel captured East Jerusalem during the Six-Day War.
Arab armies initially outnumbered Israeli forces and possessed more heavy equipment, but several factors undermined their effectiveness:
Lack of coordination: Arab states pursued divergent objectives and failed to unify command structures.
Strategic and logistical weaknesses: Poor planning, supply issues, and outdated tactics limited their campaigns.
Israeli organisation and motivation: Rapid formation of the IDF, superior internal communication, and high morale gave Israel an edge.
International embargoes affected Arab resupply, while Israel circumvented restrictions through clandestine arms deals.
These weaknesses turned early numerical superiority into eventual strategic failure.
The 1949 armistices were negotiated between Israel and neighbouring states, not Palestinian representatives, leaving Palestinians without a political voice. The agreements did not establish a Palestinian state, as envisioned by the 1947 UN plan.
Consequently:
Around 700,000 Palestinians became refugees, many fleeing or being expelled from areas under Israeli control.
Refugee camps emerged in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Gaza, shaping regional demographics.
The West Bank came under Jordanian control and Gaza under Egyptian administration, fragmenting Palestinian territories.
This statelessness and displacement entrenched the Palestinian refugee crisis as a core issue in the conflict.
The 1948–49 war set critical precedents for later conflicts. Arab leaders’ failure to destroy Israel damaged their legitimacy and fuelled political upheaval, including revolutions in Egypt and Syria.
The Green Line borders established in 1949 became the starting point for future disputes, particularly after Israel’s territorial gains. The unresolved Palestinian question remained a catalyst for tension, leading to wars in 1956, 1967, and 1973.
Additionally, both sides drew military and political lessons. Israel prioritised pre-emptive strategy and mobilisation, while Arab states sought greater coordination and modernisation, shaping their approaches in subsequent decades.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Give two reasons why Arab states opposed the creation of Israel in 1948.
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for each valid reason, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers include:
They rejected the United Nations Partition Plan of 1947, viewing it as an illegitimate imposition. (1)
They believed Zionism was a colonial project that would dispossess Palestinian Arabs. (1)
They feared a Jewish state would threaten the sovereignty and integrity of Arab states. (1)
They wanted to support Palestinian Arabs and prevent their displacement. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the course of the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949) changed from the initial invasion to the signing of the armistice agreements.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple statements with little detail or narrative, possibly mentioning invasion or armistice but with minimal explanation.
Example: "Arab states invaded Israel in 1948, and later armistice agreements were signed." (1–2)
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of changes in the course of the war, referring to phases such as invasion, Israeli counteroffensives, and the shift in control. May lack detail or depth.
Example: "Arab states attacked Israel from several directions in May 1948. Israel later reorganised its forces into the IDF and launched counteroffensives, gaining territory." (3–4)
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Detailed and accurate explanation of how the war developed, including references to key phases (initial invasion, truce, Israeli operations), changes in military fortunes, and the resulting armistice agreements.
Example: "After Arab armies invaded on 15 May 1948 from several fronts, Israeli forces reorganised as the IDF and used the first UN truce to import arms and train troops. Renewed fighting saw Israeli operations such as Dani, Yoav, and Hiram, which captured key areas and pushed Arab forces back. Between February and July 1949, Israel signed separate armistice agreements with Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria, establishing the Green Line as the de facto border." (5–6)
