OCR Specification focus:
‘Consequences for Palestinian refugees and the Arab world, especially Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Lebanon.’
The aftermath of the First Arab–Israeli War (1948–1949) profoundly shaped the Middle East. Its impacts on Palestinian refugees and the Arab states, particularly Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon, redefined politics, society, and regional stability.
Palestinian Refugees: Displacement and Consequences
The Scale of the Refugee Crisis
The 1948 war caused the mass displacement of around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs, who fled or were expelled from their homes in areas that became part of Israel. This displacement, known as the Nakba (“catastrophe”), was one of the most significant demographic upheavals in the region’s modern history.
Many Palestinians believed their exile would be temporary, expecting Arab armies to win and allow them to return.
Israel refused their return, citing demographic concerns and security, leading to a protracted refugee crisis.
Nakba: The Arabic term meaning “catastrophe”, referring to the mass displacement of Palestinian Arabs following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.
Refugee Camps and Humanitarian Response
Most refugees fled to neighbouring Arab states and territories:
UNRWA archival photograph (1949) from the newly formed Mieh Mieh camp near Sidon, showing a Palestine refugee girl carrying her sister. It captures early refugee conditions and Lebanon’s demographic pressures as a key host state. Source
Jordan absorbed the largest number, with many settling in the West Bank and receiving citizenship.
Lebanon and Syria hosted significant populations but offered limited rights, often confining refugees to UNRWA-run camps.
Gaza Strip, under Egyptian control, became one of the most densely populated refugee zones.
The United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA), established in 1949, provided essential services—education, healthcare, and food aid.
A UNRWA fields of operation map showing the five regions where services have been provided to Palestine refugees: Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, West Bank and Gaza. It visualises the geographic spread of refugee populations and humanitarian assistance that originated in 1949. Source
However, dependence on UNRWA entrenched refugee status and limited self-sufficiency.
Political and Social Impacts on Refugees
The refugee crisis had deep political, social, and psychological effects:
Palestinian identity increasingly centred around exile, dispossession, and the right of return.
Refugee camps became hubs for political activism, laying foundations for future nationalist movements such as the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
Generational displacement entrenched socio-economic marginalisation, with refugees often excluded from labour markets and political participation in host countries.
Jordan: Integration and Strategic Challenges
Absorption and Citizenship
Jordan, under King Abdullah I, annexed the West Bank in 1950 and granted most Palestinian refugees Jordanian citizenship, seeking legitimacy and demographic strength.
This policy allowed refugees greater integration than in other Arab states, with access to employment and political life.
Palestinians became a major demographic group, influencing Jordanian society and politics.
Political Tensions
The integration strategy created long-term challenges:
Many East Bank Jordanians feared being outnumbered by Palestinians, contributing to political tension.
Jordan became a focal point of the Palestinian national struggle, culminating in the Black September conflict (1970) between the Jordanian monarchy and the PLO.
Lebanon: Fragile Balance and Sectarian Strain
Restriction and Exclusion
Lebanon hosted over 100,000 refugees by 1949 but, due to its delicate sectarian balance, denied them citizenship and restricted their rights.
Refugees were confined to camps and barred from many professions.
Their presence disrupted Lebanon’s fragile confessional political system, heightening sectarian sensitivities.
Militant Activity and Civil Conflict
Refugee camps became centres of Palestinian militancy in later decades:
Guerrilla activity against Israel from southern Lebanon provoked Israeli retaliation.
Palestinian factions, particularly the PLO, became deeply entangled in Lebanon’s civil war (1975–1990), destabilising the state.
Syria: Political Opportunity and Ideological Support
Refugees and State Policy
Syria welcomed Palestinian refugees but, like Lebanon, denied them full citizenship. They were granted residency and access to public services but remained politically marginalised.
The Syrian government exploited the Palestinian issue to bolster its pan-Arab credentials and legitimise hostility towards Israel.
Refugees became tools of state propaganda, with the Syrian regime portraying itself as a champion of Palestinian liberation.
Regional Ambitions
Syria’s support for Palestinian movements enhanced its regional standing. However, tensions arose when Palestinian organisations acted independently, challenging Syrian influence.
Egypt: Strategic Impact and Political Transformation
Gaza and Refugee Governance
Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip after 1948 but did not annex it.
A UN cartographic map showing the 1949 Armistice lines between Israel and Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. It situates refugee flows and the geopolitical realities shaping decisions like Jordan’s West Bank annexation and Egypt’s Gaza administration. Source
Instead, it administered the territory under military rule, with limited development and autonomy.
Refugees in Gaza faced severe restrictions and poverty.
Egypt’s policies reflected both solidarity with the Palestinian cause and fear of destabilising its domestic politics.
Rise of Arab Nationalism
The Palestinian question became central to Egyptian foreign policy. Under Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt positioned itself as the leader of Arab nationalism and the struggle against Israel.
Nasser used the Palestinian issue to mobilise regional support and challenge Western influence.
The refugee crisis and Israel’s creation were depicted as consequences of Western imperialism, fuelling anti-colonial rhetoric.
Broader Impacts on Arab States and Regional Politics
Shift in Regional Priorities
The refugee crisis and Israel’s survival forced Arab states to reorient their policies:
Focus shifted from inter-Arab rivalries to the Arab–Israeli conflict.
The Palestinian cause became a unifying rallying point in Arab politics.
Domestic Political Effects
The consequences varied across states:
Authoritarian regimes used the Palestinian issue to consolidate power and suppress dissent, portraying themselves as defenders of Arab unity.
Opposition groups also invoked the cause to criticise ruling elites for perceived failures against Israel.
Militarisation and Continued Conflict
The 1948 defeat discredited many Arab governments and spurred military interventions in politics:
Coups in Syria (1949) and Egypt (1952) brought regimes that prioritised confrontation with Israel.
Arab states increased military spending and coordination, setting the stage for future wars (1956, 1967, 1973).
Ideological and Cultural Impact
The refugee crisis became central to Arab identity and political discourse:
Narratives of dispossession and injustice were woven into state propaganda, education, and media.
Pan-Arabism gained traction, promising liberation of Palestine and reversal of the 1948 defeat.
Long-Term Consequences for the Region
The unresolved refugee issue and the redefinition of Arab–Israeli relations had enduring consequences:
Refugees remained stateless and dependent on international aid, with their numbers growing to over 5 million by the early 21st century.
The Palestinian question shaped foreign and domestic policy across the Arab world, influencing alliances, conflicts, and ideological movements.
It entrenched a cycle of war, displacement, and resistance, ensuring that the legacy of 1948 continued to define Middle Eastern politics.
FAQ
The experience of displacement transformed Palestinian identity from a primarily local and regional affiliation into a broader national movement.
Life in refugee camps fostered shared narratives of loss, dispossession, and the right of return, which became central to Palestinian nationalism.
These camps also became centres of political organisation, especially from the 1950s onwards, nurturing leadership networks that contributed to the creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964. The refugee issue thus gave the Palestinian cause a unifying focus and enduring momentum.
The Palestinian cause was a major driver of Arab unity, as governments across the region used it to rally domestic support and strengthen pan-Arab sentiment.
However, it also created divisions: states disagreed on how to address the refugee crisis, with some prioritising military solutions while others sought diplomacy.
Tensions arose between host governments and Palestinian organisations, especially when groups like the PLO pursued independent agendas, challenging state authority (e.g., Black September in Jordan, 1970).
The crisis prompted the creation of UNRWA in 1949, marking one of the earliest long-term humanitarian interventions by the United Nations.
It also became a recurring focus of diplomatic negotiations, including UN resolutions calling for the refugees’ right of return (notably UN Resolution 194, 1948).
The plight of refugees influenced Cold War rivalries, with both the USA and USSR using the issue to strengthen alliances in the region and shape narratives around imperialism, colonialism, and self-determination.
Responses varied based on domestic politics, demographics, and strategic aims:
Jordan integrated refugees to strengthen its claim over the West Bank and increase population size.
Lebanon, with its fragile sectarian balance, restricted rights to avoid political disruption.
Syria welcomed refugees but withheld citizenship to preserve their political leverage against Israel.
Egypt administered Gaza under military rule, limiting autonomy to prevent domestic instability.
These divergent approaches reflected differing priorities between state security, political legitimacy, and commitment to the Palestinian cause.
The presence of large refugee populations reshaped domestic political landscapes across the region.
In Jordan, Palestinians became a significant demographic and political force, influencing policy and contributing to political crises.
In Lebanon, refugee camps became flashpoints for violence and contributed to the outbreak of the civil war (1975–1990).
In Syria and Egypt, regimes used the Palestinian cause to legitimise authoritarian rule and suppress opposition.
These dynamics entrenched the refugee issue as a central factor in both domestic governance and foreign policy decisions.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two Arab states that hosted significant numbers of Palestinian refugees after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correctly identified state.
Jordan (1 mark)
Lebanon (1 mark)
Syria (1 mark)
Egypt (1 mark)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which the Palestinian refugee crisis affected Arab states after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each way explained. Answers should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of impacts on Arab states, supported by accurate factual detail.
Examples of valid points include:
Way 1 – Political and demographic impacts (up to 3 marks):
Jordan granted most refugees citizenship and annexed the West Bank, significantly altering its demographic balance (1 mark).
This caused political tension between Palestinians and East Bank Jordanians (1 mark).
The refugee issue also contributed to events like Black September in 1970 (1 mark).
Way 2 – Social and security challenges (up to 3 marks):
Lebanon restricted refugee rights to preserve sectarian balance (1 mark).
Refugee camps later became centres of militancy, destabilising the state and contributing to the Lebanese Civil War (1 mark).
The refugee presence provoked Israeli reprisals against Palestinian groups operating from Lebanese territory (1 mark).
Other valid examples could include:
Syria’s use of the Palestinian cause to bolster pan-Arab credentials and domestic legitimacy.
Egypt’s administration of Gaza under military rule and the influence of the refugee issue on Nasser’s Arab nationalist policies.
